Superfamily APOIDEA

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Regional Maps

Introduction

The Apoidea: Anthophila, or bees, are represented in Australia by over 1500 species. Excluding the Formicidae, they are the largest group of aculeate Hymenoptera in Australia. They are included in the superfamily Apoidea along with a grade of wasps, the so-called 'Sphecidae', spheciform wasps, 'digger' wasps, or more aptly, apoid wasps. Bees feed their larvae on pollen and nectar; sphecoids feed their larvae on insect or spider prey (Michener & Houston 1991). The term Anthophila has no formal taxonomic rank, but is used to describe the families within Apoidea that contain bees.

The species found in Australia or its external territories (Lord Howe Is., Norfolk Is., Cocos (Keeling) Ils, Christmas Is., Ashmore Is., Cartier Is.) are treated in the Catalogue using the taxonomic arrangement of Michener (2000). Seven families of bees are recognised (Apidae, Andrenidae, Colletidae, Halictidae, Megachilidae, Melittidae and Stenotritidae), of which five are found in Australia. The two families not recorded from Australia are the Andrenidae, known from all continents except Australia and Antarctica; and the Melittidae, from the Holarctic and Afrotropical Regions (Hurd 1979). A modified heirarchical arrangement has been proposed (Engel 2005), but it has not been adopted in the Catalogue, pending emergence of a clearer picture from the rapidly expanding information provided by molecular phylogenetics.

Several changes at the family level have been made since the previous version of the Catalogue. The family Ctenoplectridae has been reduced to the tribe Ctenoplectrini in the family Apidae; and the familiy Anthophoridae has been included in the family Apidae. The subfamilies Nomadinae and Xylocopinae are now subfamilies within the family Apidae, but genera from the former subfamily Anthophorinae have been distributed between the tribes Anthophorini and Melectini (cleptoparasitic forms) of the subfamily Apinae.

Michener (1979) examined the distributions of families of Anthophila and found that bees reach their greatest abundance and diversity in warm temperate, and contiguous desertic regions, as in the Mediterranean basin, the Californian area and in Australia. Cool temperate areas in Australia have markedly few bees; only 18 genera have been recorded from Tasmania. The bee fauna of the moist tropics varies considerably. The fauna of the Afrotropical Region is richer than the Oriental Region and the fauna becomes poorer eastwards towards New Guinea and the north-east of Australia.

Australia is unique in having about half its species, and the greatest diversity of genera, in the family Colletidae, and Australian bees are extraordinarily dependent of on a single family of plants, the Myrtaceae (Michener 1965; Armstrong 1979).

TAXONOMIC STUDIES

Fabricius (1775) published the first descriptions of Australian bees, based on the specimens collected by Joseph Banks and others on the eastern coast of Australia in 1770. Smith (1853, 1854, 1879), Cockerell (numerous papers from 1904 to 1939) and Rayment (numerous papers from 1927 to 1961) were responsible for most of the names published before 1965. Australian bees were catalogued by Froggatt (1892), Dalla Torre (1896), Hacker (1921) and Cockerell (1930–1934). Sandhouse (1943) listed the type species of genera and subgenera for the world. Type specimens of almost all species known from Australia described before 1920 were deposited in overseas museums.

Since 1960, C.D. Michener has been the major worker on the Apoidea of Australia. He revised the entire fauna (Michener 1965), organised and integrated old information with his own biological and taxonomic studies, and placed our knowledge of Australian bees in a world context. Since 1967, T.F. Houston has made major contributions on the biology and taxonomy of Australian Apoidea, while E.M. Exley has published major revisions of genera of Euryglossinae (e.g. Exley 1968, 1976a, 1976b). Taxonomic revisions of several groups of bees are in progress and theses by Houston (1969), King (1986, 1991) and Maynard (1992) have been published in part.

Rayment (1935) published the first book on Australian bees. This book included many biological observations and descriptions of a large number of new species. He was a considerable artist, providing a large number of illustrations for his scientific papers, and he was a most prolific author. In addition to his taxonomic papers on bees, wasps and thrips, he wrote on apiculture, published three novels and numerous articles, and gave radio broadcasts on a wide variety of topics (Young 1967). Correspondents from all around Australia sent him specimens of native bees, particularly after an appeal, in the Australasian Beekeeper, for specimens.

Rayment's papers on Anthophoridae, submitted to the journal Treubia, were caught up in World War II when the Japanese invaded Java; Part I was published by the Japanese in 1944 (it has the date 1942 printed on it) (Rayment 1944) and Part II was published in 1947 (Rayment 1947; Young 1947). The split publication has caused taxonomic problems, as some new names were used in Part I but formal descriptions were not published until Part II. A qualification to the use of each of these names is given where they are used in the Catalogue. A number of Rayment names published in other papers have not been matched to formal descriptions; these are listed in Appendix III.

Before Rayment died, his personal collection, which contained a large number of genuine holotypes, was purchased by CSIRO Division of Entomology, Canberra. This collection is now in the Australian National Insect Collection (ANIC). When the specimens were transferred from Rayment's cabinet, over 30 of the type specimens which were described from his collection were not found: these types are listed in the Catalogue as 'whereabouts unknown'. Some of these types may be present in the ANIC or in other Australian collections but unlabelled, or it is possible that they were among specimens given away by Rayment before the collection left his possession.

K. Walker (in litt., pers. comm. A. Neboiss and E. Matheson) provided a further insight into the problems associated with Rayment's types. Rayment did not collect extensively outside of the Melbourne environs. Instead he received material from a number of collectors. Recognition of these collectors is important as most label data includes only their initials. The main collectors for Rayment were:

JK: Dr J. Kerr (medical practitioner), Brisbane, SE QLD (whose initials could be confused with NMV material of J. Kershaw); RT: R. Trebilcock (solicitor), NW VIC; AS: A. Snell (sheep shearer), WA; ANB: A.N. Burns (Curator of Entomology, NMV), VIC; and EM: E. Matheson (technician in Entomology, NMV), VIC.

Rayment had an indiscriminate (occasionally casual) attitude towards type labelling. He would sometimes place a red, type label on a specimen to indicate that he had examined the specimen and had identified it as the correct type for the species. In this sense, the word type and a red label was not meant to indicate holotype or paratype status of the specimens, but simply a correct identification. He often described the opposite sex of a described species years after the original description and called such specimens allotypes. He was known to give away small boxes of specimens with copies of his stories and these boxes would sometimes contain specimens labelled as types.

SOLITARY AND SOCIAL BEES

To the layman, the word 'bee' generally means the introduced honeybee, Apis mellifera Linnaeus, a species of the comparatively small family of social bees, the Apidae. Apis mellifera occurs over much of Australia, in beehives or feral, and is highly visible on crops, garden plants and native vegetation. The painful sting it can inflict is well known. The honeybee is of considerable economic importance and its honey is a part of our diet. There are very few species of truly social bees in Australia and the great majority of native species, including all species of our largest family, the Colletidae, are solitary.

All bees visit flowers for nectar and almost all females gather pollen as food for their larvae. One Australian species, Ctenoplectra australica Cockerell, probably uses floral oils. The females of cleptoparasitic species, however, lay their eggs on the provisions that their host (another species of bee) has gathered for her own larvae.

Solitary bees do not cooperate in nest construction or provisioning. Each female makes her own nest, constructs a cell, mass provisions it with enough pollen and nectar to feed a larva to maturity, lays an egg in the cell and then closes that cell before starting the next cell or nest. There is no cooperation with, or behavioural or morphological differentiation from, other females of the same species. There is usually no contact between generations as the larvae develop in closed cells and the mother normally dies before her offspring emerge.

The most highly social bees, on the other hand, live in colonies where numerous individuals and adults of more than one generation coexist. There is cooperation and division of labour among individuals in the construction of the nest and the feeding of the larvae; there is contact between adults and larvae as the larvae are fed progressively; and the egg-laying caste is physically differentiated from the other females.

Between the extremes of solitary and fully social behaviour, there are various intermediates (Michener 1974): solitary species which nest in aggregations without interaction in nest building; communal species with several females sharing a nest but with each female constructing, provisioning and laying eggs in her own cells; communal species that cooperate in construction and provisioning of cells but each female has fully developed ovaries; and communal species in which there are females that do not lay eggs and differ from the egg-layers only in the lack of ovarian development.

A colony is described as subsocial when it consists of one female who protects and feeds her immature offspring before they reach maturity. In this case, there is no cooperation with or division of labour among the adults. Colonies of primitively social bees do have cooperation between, and division of labour among, the adults. Contact between two or more generations of adults occurs, but the adults are not physically differentiated.

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES

Studies of bees have been hampered by problems associated with the identification of individuals to species. Very few Australian bees have been studied in the laboratory and, for most groups, field observations on biology are fragmentary. The best source of information is Michener (1965) and the most important references are listed under the family headings. McGinley (1989) catalogued references to immature Apoidea of the world.

Many of the solitary bees build nests in the soil, some in rotten wood. Others use pre-existing holes or hollows in wood or the soil, dig out the centre of a pithy stem, or re-use a mud-nest built by other Hymenoptera. Bees nesting in wood, rather than soil, are more likely to be successful migrants to another country; two such species of Australian Colletidae, Euryglossina (Euryglossina) proctotrypoides Cockerell and Hyleoides concinna (Fabricius) have become established in New Zealand (Donovan 1980, 1983; Fordham 1989).

The discovery of polymorphic males in some communally nesting Halictidae (Houston 1970) and work on the relatedness of nest-sharers in Allodapini (Schwarz 1988) have led to continuing research on the development of insect social behaviour (Knerer & Schwarz 1976, 1978; Knerer 1980; Kukuk & Schwarz 1987, 1988; Sugden 1989; Kukuk & Crozier 1990; O'Keefe & Schwarz 1990, Schwarz & Blows 1991, Schwarz & O'Keefe 1991).

FLOWER RELATIONSHIPS AND POLLINATION

Bees obtain their food (pollen, nectar, or in a few groups, oil), from the flowers of angiosperms. In turn, many plants depend on Apoidea to effect pollination. Polylectic species gather pollen from a wide range of plants while oligolectic species are restricted to a few species of related flowers. Many species of Australian bees, especially in the Colletidae, appear to be oligolectic on the family Myrtaceae. If pollen is carried internally, as by Hylaeinae, Euryglossinae and at least one species of Colletinae (Houston 1981), it is difficult to confirm oligolecty.

Michener (1965) and Armstrong (1979) provide the most comprehensive information on the flower visiting records of Australian native bees but Australian flower visiting records for A. mellifera are scattered through the botanical and agricultural literature (e.g. Blake & Roff 1958; Collins & Rebelo 1987; Goebel 1984; Vithanage & Ironside 1986; Ramsey 1988; Heard et al. 1990). Many records of pollination by native bees do not identify the bees to species (e.g. Bernhardt 1986, 1987; Dafni & Calder 1987; Beardsell et al. 1986; Anderson & Symon 1988; House 1989; Gross 1992), so these records could not be included in the Catalogue.

BEES AND HUMANS

The majority of native bees are seldom noticed even though their nests may be conspicuous, especially those of species that nest in aggregations. Many bees nest in pre-existing hollows or burrows and nests, e.g. those of Megachilidae (Rayment 1935), may be found also in many locations around houses. However, they are seldom recorded as pests.

Xylocopini, or carpenter bees, excavate burrows in sound wood but no Australian species have been recorded as pests of structural timber. Blue-banded bees (Amegilla (Zonamegilla) spp.) are sometimes found nesting in adobe walls or in mortar between bricks or stones in house walls (Rayment 1944; Cardale 1968) and possibly cause damage to aboriginal rock art sites (Naumann & Watson 1987; Wylie et al. 1987). In the wild, both native and introduced honeybees build nests in hollow trees, in hollows among rocks and sometimes in cavities in houses. Native bees have been known to collect fresh paint or putty from buildings for use in their nests (Michener 1981b; Wagner & Dollin 1982).

Worldwide, Apidae are managed by humans for honey production and pollination of plants. Australian Aboriginals have been recorded eating the larvae of the large, solitary, soil-nesting anthophorid, Amegilla dawsoni (Douglas 1980) and use the honey of the stingless honeybees, Trigona (Heterotrigona) spp. and Austroplebeia spp. (McKenzie 1975; Dollin & Dollin 1983, 1986). The Australian native bees otherwise have been largely neglected but there is now interest in their potential as pollinators (Heard 1988; Velthuis 1990).

The honeybee, A. mellifera, was introduced into Australia early in the 19th Century. The honey industry in Australia produces significant domestic and export income and, in addition, A. mellifera is the most important insect pollinator of crop plants as well as a very significant pollinator of native plants. A. mellifera has been suspected of deleterious effects. It may 'rob' native flowers without pollinating them or compete with native bees for floral resources (Douglas 1980; Pyke 1983; Pyke & Balzer 1985; Wapshere 1988; Sugden & Pyke 1991). The apiarists' point of view has been put by Winner (1983), Burking & Kessell (1987) and in papers, for example, Rhodes (1988).

Other species of bees were brought into Australia in the 1930s to pollinate specific introduced crops. Bumblebees were brought into Australia from England (Young 1967). They were also introduced from New Zealand where they had been established for the same purpose. The first introductions into Australia failed, but in 1992 one species (Bombus terrestris (Linnaeus)) was found to be established. The alfalfa leafcutting bee, Megachile rotundata (Fabricius), was released in South Australia in 1987 in an attempt to improve the production of lucerne seed (Anon. 1987). Its establishment and success have yet to be assessed. Pollination of lucerne by honeybees and native bees was studied by Doull (1961) and Bray (1973).

Females of the larger, solitary, native bees can sting humans. These bees are not aggressive in defence of their nests and such stings are rare and usually involve the bee being trapped in clothing. Recorded cases of allergic reaction to stings from native bees are few (Morris et. al 1988).

Apis mellifera is aggressive in defence of its colony and is relatively more likely to sting people. Pain and swelling at the site of the sting are a normal reaction. Medical treatment may be necessary if a person is stung by a large number of bees or on certain areas of the body, such as near the eyes or on the tongue. Serious medical problems may arise in individuals who have become sensitised to honeybee venoms: they may suffer a severe allergic reaction to subsequent stings (Southcott 1988). The risk from bee stings is generally exaggerated (Schmidt 1986).

FOSSIL BEES

Houston (1987) described the fossil brood cells of Stenotritidae from Australia. Publications on fossil bees described from other parts of the world include Zeuner & Manning (1976), Wille (1977), Burnham (1979), Michener & Grimaldi (1988a, 1988b) and Rasnitsyn & Michener (1991).

NOMINA NUDA

The following names are recorded in the literature but there is no indication to which taxa they refer; they are not included elsewhere in the Catalogue. They do not satisfy the criteria of availability according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and they are listed here as nomina nuda decision of J.C. Cardale.

A full list of names designated as nomina nuda in the Catalogue is given in Appendix III (Cardale 1993).

Anthophora duttiella Rayment, 1944: 15 (fig. only)
Anthophora engganensisRayment, 1944: 15 (fig. only), p. 32 (as carrier of a small insect)
Anthophora engannensis Rayment, 1946: 65 (as carrier of a small insect)
Anthophora sybilae glauca Rayment, 1944: 21 (name only)
Euryglossa nigrocyanea Rayment, 1935: 23, pl. 2 (fig. 18, caption only); Michener 1965: 87
Exoneura roddi Rayment, 1949: 250 fig. 3 (caption only to fig. of larva)
Exoneura subholmesi Rayment, 1949: 248, 250 fig. 2, 253 (name only)
Halictus darlingensis Rayment, 1954: 31 (listed as host to mite)
Halictus paradimorphus Rayment, 1955: 152 (name only)
Hylaeus dorothae Erickson, 1951: 64 (name only); Erickson, 1965: 63 (repeats 1951 remarks)
Hylaeus nigrojugata Rayment, 1951: [305] (nest, host to parasitic wasp)
Hylaeus nigrojugatus Rayment, 1954: 28 (listed as host to mite)
Paracolletes paradoxus Rayment, 1955: 88 (explanation for text-fig. 4, fig. 2, on p. 102)
Prosopis ruficornis Rayment, 1929: 60) (name only)

Acknowledgements

Ms Cardale's preparation of an earlier version of this volume of the Catalogue formed part of the research conducted by the CSIRO Division of Entomology, Canberra, and the Division's resources and facilities were made available to her.

Dr Ken Walker's and Michael Batley's 2006 update of this volume of the Catalogue formed part of the research conducted by Museum Victoria (by KW) and private research (by MB).

All compilations of the volume have been supported by grants from the Australian Biological Resources Study.

The illustrations used in the family introductions, except for Ctenoplectridae, are from Michener & Houston (1991). They were kindly provided by and are reproduced with permission from the CSIRO Division of Entomology and the Melbourne University Press. The illustration of Ctenoplectridae was prepared for ABRS by Mr G. Thompson of the Queensland Museum.

The author wishes to thank the following people for assistance, information and encouragement: Dr I.D. Naumann, ANIC and the Computing Section, CSIRO Division of Entomology, Canberra, ACT; the librarians at CSIRO Black Mountain Library, Canberra, ACT; Dr T.F. Houston, Western Australian Museum, Perth, WA; Dr J. King, Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane, QLD; Dr A. Dollin, North Richmond, NSW; Dr M.P. Schwarz, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC (now Flinders University, South Australia); Mr K. Walker, Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, VIC; Dr R. Brooks, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA; and staff of the Australian Biological Resources Study, especially Dr W.W.K. Houston and Dr G. Maynard.

Update 2000

The update 2000 of the Apoidea database for the Australian Faunal Directory, derived from the Zoological Catalogue of Australia database, was supported by funds from the Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS) and was executed by Ms Cardale.

The preparation and data entry for this database was conducted in CSIRO Entomology, Canberra and use of the Organisation's resources and facilities are gratefully acknowledged. I am also indebted to the staff of the Organisation's Black Mountain Library.

Update 2006

The update 2006 of the Apoidea database for the Australian Faunal Directory was supported by funds from the Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS) and was performed by Dr Ken Walker and Michael Bately.

Preparation and data entry for this database were conducted in Museum Victoria, Melbourne, and use of the Organisation's resources and facilities are gratefully acknowledged.

Database Notes

Update of the Catalogue

This section of the Australian Faunal Directory is an update to the published Catalogue of Cardale (1993). The Apoidea database, derived from the Zoological Catalogue of Australia database, was transferred to and updated using the taxonomic-bibliographic software package Platypus that was developed by the Australian Biological Resources Study.

The local study of Australian bees has been enriched by the establishment of the Australian Native Bee Research Centre (PO Box 74, North Richmond, NSW 2754); publications include a journal (Aussie Bee, No 1 February 1997), booklets (Native Bees of Australia Series), and the field guide by Dollin et al. (2000). Welch (1995) discusses the use of beeswax from native bees in Aboriginal art.

Detailed information on the introduction of honeybees to Australia is given by Barrett (1995, 1999); discussion on the possible harmful effects of feral honeybees has continued (Oldroyd 1998, Horskins & Turner 1999). Williams and Adam (1997) studied interactions between Apis mellifera and Trigona carbonaria, and the effects of the establishment of Bombus terrestris have been considered by Hingston and McQuillan (1998a, 1998b, 1999) and Goulson (2000). An African megachilid, Afranthidium repetitum Schulz, has become established in southern Queensland, Apis cerana Fabricius has been found on Torres Strait islands and a nest was eradicated in Darwin (Weatherhead 1999).

Format of the Catalogue

Families are listed in the phylogenetic order of Michener(2000) but the subfamilies, genera and species are listed in alphabetical order, with nominate subgenera and subspecies, if they occur in Australia, first.

Type information is given almost exclusively for primary types; details of paratypes, including 'allotypes', will be found by consulting the references. The term 'syntypes (probable)' is given where the original description does not indicate how many specimens were in front of the describer. Some of the specimens accepted as holotypes by several workers (e.g. Michener 1965) do not have this status. For example, some species of Cockerell were described from more than one specimen and in the original publication a holotype was not selected. Later authors examining Cockerell's material have found one specimen from each series is labelled 'type', and they have treated this specimen as the holotype. Under Art. 73, 1985 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, all such specimens from the original series are syntypes, unless a holotype has been inferred in subsequent literature, and thus the specimen is a lectotype by holotype inference (Art. 74).

The zoogeographic terms used for extralimital distribution follow Cranston & Naumann (1991). New Guinea is used in the zoogeographic sense; many of the references to distribution pre-date the political separation of Papua New Guinea and West Irian (in 2006, = West Papua). Non-Australian localities have been given their modern names (or spelling) but it was not possible to check all cases.

The distributions of species are mainly from published data and all localities are listed where five or fewer localities are published. There are few published distribution records from the Australian Capital Territory but many of the species recorded from the Murray-Darling basin, NSW, also occur in the ACT. Labels that read 'National Park NSW' are assumed to refer to Royal National Park, south of Sydney, NSW, and 'National Park QLD' to Lamington National Park, S QLD.

Comparatively little is known of the ecology of the Australian bees except for a few well-studied species. For most species, all relevant references are listed but catalogue references and those repeating information are not included. References are qualified when it seems likely that the species has been misidentified.

The records of flowers visited by each species, where known, are listed in the Catalogue. No attempt has been made to distinguish between pollen and nectar sources as this information was not given for most records. Plant names follow Chapman (1991).

Limital Area

Distribution data in the Directory is by political and geographic region descriptors and serves as a guide to the distribution of a taxon. For details of a taxon's distribution, the reader should consult the cited references (if any) at genus and species levels.

Australia is defined as including Lord Howe Is., Norfolk Is., Cocos (Keeling) Ils, Christmas Is., Ashmore and Cartier Ils, Macquarie Is., Australian Antarctic Territory, Heard and McDonald Ils, and the waters associated with these land areas of Australian political responsibility. Political areas include the adjacent waters.

Terrestrial geographical terms are based on the drainage systems of continental Australia, while marine terms are self explanatory except as follows: the boundary between the coastal and oceanic zones is the 200 m contour; the Arafura Sea extends from Cape York to 124 DEG E; and the boundary between the Tasman and Coral Seas is considered to be the latitude of Fraser Island, also regarded as the southern terminus of the Great Barrier Reef.

Distribution records, if any, outside of these areas are listed as extralimital. The distribution descriptors for each species are collated to genus level. Users are advised that extralimital distribution for some taxa may not be complete.

 

Excluded Taxa

ANTHOPHORIDAE: Thyreus gemmata Cockerell, 1911.

ANTHOPHORIDAE: Thyreus novaehollandiae (Lepeletier, 1841).

ANTHOPHORIDAE: Xylocopa bryorum (Fabricius, 1775).

ANTHOPHORIDAE: Xylocopa muscaria (Fabricius, 1775).

ANTHOPHORIDAE: Xylocopa simillima Smith, 1854.

APIDAE: Trigona (Heterotrigona) canifrons Smith, 1857.

COLLETIDAE: Leioproctus (Hoplocolletes) ventralis (Friese, 1924).

COLLETIDAE: Leioproctus (Nesocolletes) waterhousei (Cockerell, 1905).

COLLETIDAE: Leioproctus (Leioproctus) maorium (Cockerell, 1913).

COLLETIDAE: Prosopis volatilis Smith, 1879.

 

General References

Alexander, B.A. 1992. An exploratory analysis of cladistic relationships within the superfamily Apoidea, with special reference to sphecid wasps (Hymenoptera). Journal of Hymenoptera Research 1: 25-61 [Date published 31/12/1992]

Anderson, G.J. & Symon, D. 1988. Insect foragers on Solanum flowers in Australia. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Gardens 75: 842-852 [Date published 31/12/1988]

Anon. 1987. Leafcutter bees released in S.A. Australasian Beekeeper 88: 175 [Date published 31/03/1987]

Armstrong, J.A. 1979. Biotic pollination mechanisms in the Australian flora—a review. New Zealand Journal of Botany 17: 467-508 [Date published 31/12/1979]

Barrett, P. 1995. The Immigrant Bees 1788–1898: A Cyclopaedia on the Introduction of European Honey Bees into Australia and New Zealand. Springwood : Peter Barrett 186 pp.

Barrett, P. 1999. The Immigrant Bees 1788 to 1898. Volume 2. An update on the Introduction of European Honeybees into Australia and New Zealand. Springwood, NSW : P. Barrett 164 pp.

Beardsell, D.V., Clements, M.A., Hutchinson, J.F. & Williams, E.G. 1986. Pollination of Diuris maculata R.Br. (Orchidaceae) by floral mimicry of the native legumes Daviesia spp. and Pultenaea scabra R.Br. Australian Journal of Botany 34: 165-173 [Date published 31/12/1986]

Bernhardt, P. 1986. Bee-pollination in Hibbertia fasciculata (Dilleniaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 152: 231-241 [Date published 31/12/1986]

Bernhardt, P. 1987. A comparison of the diversity, density, and foraging behavior of bees and wasps on Australian Acacia. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Gardens 74: 42-50 [Date published 31/12/1987]

Blake, S.T. & Roff, C. 1958. The Honey Flora of South-eastern Queensland. Brisbane : Dept. Agriculture & Stock 199 pp. [Date published 31/12/1958]

Bray, R.A. 1973. Characteristics of some bees of the family Megachilidae in southeast Queensland and their potential as lucerne pollinators. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 12: 99-102 [Date published 31/12/1973]

Brothers, D.J. 1975. Phylogeny and classification of the aculeate Hymenoptera, with special reference to the Mutillidae. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 50: 483-648 [Date published 31/12/1975]

Burking, R.C. & Kessell, A.C. 1987. The effects of the diminishing flora resource on the Western Australian beekeeping industry. Australasian Beekeeper 88: 184-188 [Date published 31/12/1987]

Burnham, L. 1979. Survey of social insects in the fossil record. Psyche (Cambridge) 85: 85-133 [Date published 31/12/1979]

Cane, J.H. 1979. The hind tibiotarsal and tibial spur articulations in bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 52: 123-137 [Date published 31/12/1979]

Cardale, J. 1968. Nests and nesting behaviour of Amegilla (Amegilla) pulchra (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophorinae). Australian Journal of Zoology 16: 689-707 [Date published 31/12/1968]

Cardale, J.C. in Houston, W.W.K. & Maynard, G.V. (eds) 1993. Zoological Catalogue of Australia, Vol. 10, Hymenoptera: Apoidea. Canberra : AGPS

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Cockerell, T.D.A. 1930. The bees of Australia. The Australian Zoologist 6: 137-156, 205-236 [Date published 31/12/1930]

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Collins, B.G. & Rebelo, T. 1987. Pollination biology of the Proteaceae in Australia and southern Africa. Australian Journal of Ecology 12: 387-421 [Date published 31/12/1987]

Cranston, P.S. & Naumann, I.D. 1991. Biogeography. pp. 180-197 in CSIRO (ed.). The Insects of Australia. A textbook for students and research workers. Melbourne : Melbourne University Press Vol. 2 pp. 543-1137

Dafni, A. & Calder, D.M. 1987. Pollination by deceit and floral mimesis in Thelymitra antennifera (Orchidaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 158: 11-22 [Date published 31/12/1987]

Dalla Torre, K.W. 1896. Catalogus Hymenopterorum Hucusque Descriptorum Systematicus et Synonymicus. Apidae (Anthophila). Lipsiae : G. Engelmann Vol. x 643 pp. [Date published 31/12/1896]

De Lello, E. 1971a. Adnexal glands of the sting apparatus of bees: anatomy and histology, I (Hymenoptera: Colletidae and Andrenidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 44: 5-13 [Date published 31/12/1971]

De Lello, E. 1971b. Adnexal glands of the sting apparatus of bees: anatomy and histology, II (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 44: 14-20 [Date published 31/12/1971]

Dollin, A. & Dollin, L. 1986. Tracing aboriginal apiculture of Australian native bees in the far north-west. Australasian Beekeeper 88: 118-122 [Date published 31/12/1986]

Dollin, A., Batley, M., Robinson, M. & Faulkner, B. 2000. Native Bees of the Sydney Region. A Field Guide. North Richmond, NSW : Australian Native Bee Research Centre 70 pp.

Dollin, L. & Dollin, A. 1983. Honeymooning in far north Queensland with Australian native bees. Australasian Beekeeper 85: 104-107 [Date published 31/12/1983]

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