Publications
A report by M.D. Young, N. Gunningham, J. Elix, J. Lambert, B. Howard, P. Grabosky and E. McCrone
Prepared by CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology, the Australian Centre for Environmental Law, and Community Solutions
January 1996
Biodiversity Series, Paper No. 9
Biodiversity Unit
To provide context and depth to this report, case studies were undertaken to identify the potential of incentive instruments and mechanisms to promote the conservation of biodiversity. The studies were chosen to complement the community consultations, to cover as wide a range of issues as possible and to cover as many regions as possible. Presented in Appendix 2, they comprise:
Each case study provides background information and then proposes a mix of policies to address threats to biodiversity values in the particular region. Data was collected to describe biodiversity status, current resource-use and conservation objectives, threats to biodiversity values, and existing instruments and mechanisms for its conservation. Consideration of these data indicated the potential of incentive instruments and mechanisms, the best mix of incentive instruments and mechanisms, and the effects of nature-based and ecotourism.
This approach was taken to demonstrate the role that incentive instruments and mechanisms will be expected to perform with respect to the wide range of biodiversity values and threats and the resource uses and objectives. Much of the work is speculative in orientation. Nevertheless, it has provided an opportunity to test many of the recommendations found later in this report. The case studies highlighted 144 policy opportunities.
The case studies were selected to obtain an understanding of issues affecting the conservation of biodiversity over as broad a perspective as possible within the timeframe and budget constraints of the project. Although the outcomes are discussed within a context specific to each location, many of the issues and conclusions are applicable to other regions of similar type and situation. For instance many of the circumstances of the WA wheatbelt study are found in other broadacre farming regions where native vegetation exists primarily as small remnants. This chapter summarises each of the case studies that are presented in Appendix 2. It should be considered as a summary of opportunities to improve biodiversity conservation, rather than a source of answers to the specific issues raised.
Each case study, without exception, indicates a need for further action to address ongoing and potential threats to biodiversity values. Each also indicates that many threats, such as those caused by land degradation, competition for water resources and visitation by tourists, are likely to increase. A wide range of yet to be implemented policy opportunities to improve the conservation of biodiversity are presented. The variety in each set of 'optimal policy mixes' offered to address threats indicates the need to target policies to specific issues and to have a basket of measures available to meet the range of problems faced in any one location. There is much community goodwill to be harnessed, and many practical ideas that may be applied at a grassroots level.
A lack of knowledge, about the existence of biodiversity values and how to manage resources in a manner that protects them, is often cited. Where threats to biodiversity and corresponding actions to counteract those threats have been recognised, often impediments to their realisation exist and need to be removed. In the most part, it appears that institutional and social organisational deficiencies present a common barrier to the conservation of biodiversity. There are many opportunities to create greater community and industry willingness to conserve biodiversity through non-interventionist and financially attractive incentives. However, these must be implemented on a base of precautionary standards designed to prevent irreversible declines in biodiversity values.
The complexity of biodiversity and the range of society's objectives for its use and protection deems that no one policy opportunity will offer a general solution. The selection of an optimal policy mix will depend upon criteria such as efficiency, cost-effectiveness, equity, dependability, adaptability, and acceptability. The optimal mix will also depend upon the positive reinforcement possible between the individual incentive instruments and mechanisms.
The Western Australian wheatbelt case study highlights problems associated with fragmented ecosystems and the effects of land degradation on remnant native vegetation. The WA wheatbelt is an area of about 140,000 km2 located inland of the Darling Range in the south-west of the State and is used primarily for a system of agriculture that is based on crop production mixed with sheep and cattle grazing. The wheatbelt is an almost entirely human modified environment that consists of cleared paddocks, pastures, salt pans and remnants of native vegetation.92 Remnant vegetation is defined as any patch of native vegetation around which most or all of the original vegetation has been removed.93 The clearing of native vegetation (and subsequent land use) has resulted in the WA wheatbelt degrading in its agricultural potential and nature conservation value.94 Significant losses of agricultural production have occurred because of soil salinisation, waterlogging, and wind and water erosion.95 Conservation of biodiversity and sustainable resource use have in many instances common objectives for remedial action.
Clearing for agriculture has resulted in the removal of more than 90% of the native vegetation.96 It is estimated that 93% of the central Avon district has been cleared97 and because certain vegetation associations were regarded as good indicators of potential agricultural productivity they were cleared preferentially. For example, 97% of the York Gum, Wandoo and Salmon Gum woodlands, which had covered about 41,000 km2, have been cleared. Native flora and fauna are now confined to remnant patches scattered throughout the wheatbelt.98 This network of Nature Reserves and remnants on private lands provides a poor example of the original vegetation. Some 40% of the remaining native vegetation area is located on private lands. Remnants along roadsides also constitute a significant portion of the vegetation remaining in the wheatbelt.99 The high density of rare and geographically restricted plant species and the presence of rare fauna in agricultural areas emphasises the importance of these remnants for nature conservation.100
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92 Saunders, D.A. (1989) 'Changes in the avifauna of a region, district and remnant as a result of native vegetation: the wheatbelt of Western Australia. A Case Study.' In Biological Conservation 50: 99-135.
93 Saunders, D.A.; Hobbs, R.J. and Margules, C.R. (1991) 'Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: A review.' In Conservation Biology 5(1):18-32.
94 Hobbs, R.J. and Saunders, D.A. (1991) 'Re-integrating fragmented landscapes - a preliminary framework for the Western Australian Wheatbelt.' Journal of Environmental Management 33:161-167.
95 Malcolm, C.V. (1983) 'Wheatbelt salinity.' In Western Australian Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 52.
96 Saunders, D.A.; Hobbs, R.J. and Margules, C.R. (1991) 'Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: A review.' In Conservation Biology 5(1):18-32.
97 Beard, J.S. and Sprenger, B.S. (1984) 'Geographical data from the vegetation survey of Western Australia' Vegetation Survey of Western Australia, Occasional Paper, No 2. Vegmap Publications, Perth.
98 Saunders, D.A. (1989) 'Changes in the avifauna of a region, district and remnant as a result of native vegetation: the wheatbelt of Western Australia. A Case Study.' In Biological Conservation 50: 99-135.
99 Hobbs, R.J.; Saunders, D.A. and Arnold, G.W. (1993) 'Integrated landscape ecology: A Western Australian perspective.' In Biological Conservation 64:231-238.
100 Wallace, K.L. and Moore, S.A. (1987) 'Management of remnant bushland for nature conservation in agricultural areas of South-Western Australia - operational and planning perspectives.' In Saunders D.A.; Arnold, G.W.; Burbidge, A.A. and Hopkins, A.J.M. (eds) Nature Conservation: The role of remnants of native vegetation. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Norton, NSW.
A study of 277 plant species recorded from the wheatbelt region showed that some 58 are possibly extinct, 56 are extremely rare and 154 species exist in very small populations.101 About one third of the State's Declared Rare Flora occur within the wheatbelt.102 Of the "1386 populations of the 238 taxa of declared flora in Western Australia in 1989 only 30 per cent of the populations occurred within conservation reserves, while 16 per cent were found only on freehold land."103 These data indicate the importance of remnants as reserves of important species, it also indicates that the cooperation of a wide range of government agencies and private landholders will be required to protect them.
Thirteen species of mammal have disappeared from the wheatbelt area and less than half of those original species are now regarded as common.104
Of the 148 species of landbirds recorded in the WA wheatbelt, two species have gone extinct over the past 80 or so years. At a district level more species have disappeared, the degree of local extinctions depending on the extent of native vegetation loss.105 The results of a community-based bird atlassing scheme106 showed that since 1937, of the 139 non-passerine (non-perching) species recorded from the wheatbelt, 31% have decreased in range and/or abundance and 8% have increased. The passerines are considered to be greater affected with 75% of species decreasing in range and/or abundance, no species showed any increase.
Kitchener et al.107 suggest that most of the surviving mammal species in the wheatbelt are suited to existing within patches of vegetation, such as Nature Reserves. However, they suggest that a minimum area of about 40,000 ha is required to conserve that part of the regional assemblage of mammals likely to persist in the face of human disturbances. Areas as small as 30 ha may have value for conserving specific mammal species and are certainly valuable conservation areas for lower animals and plants. The value of these small areas is likely to be greatly enhanced if they can be closely positioned or have connecting corridors.
Previously the greatest threat to biodiversity in the WA wheatbelt was probably the clearing of native vegetation. The primary threats are now from exotic flora and fauna species, diseases, land degradation and inappropriate fire regimes.108 The fragmented nature of remaining areas of native vegetation is in itself a threat as it predisposes the remaining areas to external effects and alters the dynamics of surviving species.
Soil resources have been affected by salinity, erosion, and water-logging as a result of excessive clearing and resultant changes to local water balance. The water quality and wetland and river habitats have been affected by increasing concentrations of salt, nutrients and sediment. Groundwater levels are rising and generally becoming more saline.109 The almost complete loss of natural bodies of freshwater caused by salinisation, has had a significant impact on the region's biota.110
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101 Patrick, S.J. (1985) Possible extinct and extremely rare plants of the wheatbelt of Western Australia. Rare and geographically restricted plants of Western Australia. Report No 28, unpublished Report, Department of Conservation and Land Management, Como.
102 Government of Western Australia; 1992. State of the Environment Report, Government of Western Australia, Perth.
103 Burbidge, A.A. and Wallace, K.J. (1995) 'Practical methods for conserving biodiversity.' In Bradstock, R.A.; Auld, T.D.; Keith, D.A.; Kingsford, R.T.; Lunney, D. and Sivertsen, D.P. (eds) Conserving Biodiversity: Threats and solutions. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW, p16.
104 Wallace, K.L. and Moore, S.A. (1987) 'Management of remnant bushland for nature conservation in agricultural areas of South-Western Australia - operational and planning perspectives.' In Saunders D.A.; Arnold, G.W.; Burbidge, A.A. and Hopkins, A.J.M. (eds) Nature Conservation: The role of remnants of native vegetation. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Norton, NSW.
105 Saunders, D.A. (1989) 'Changes in the avifauna of a region, district and remnant as a result of native vegetation: the wheatbelt of Western Australia. A Case Study.' In Biological Conservation 50: 99-135.
106 Saunders, D.A. (1993) 'A community-based observer scheme to assess avian responses to habitat reduction and fragmentation in South-Western Australia.' In Biological Conservation 64:203-218. For more recent data see Saunders, D.A. and Ingram, J.A. (1995) Birds of Southwestern Australia: An atlas of changes in the distribution and abundance of wheatbelt avifauna. Surrey Beatty and Sons in association with CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology, Western Australian Laboratory, Chipping Norton, NSW.
107 Kitchener, D.J.; Chapman, A. and Muir, B.G. (1980) 'The conservation value for mammals of reserves in the Western Australian Wheatbelt.' In Biological Conservation 18:179-207.
108 CALM (Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management) (1992) A nature conservation strategy for Western Australia. A Draft for Public Comment.
109 Government of Western Australia (1992) State of the Environment Report, Government of Western Australia, Perth.
110 Government of Western Australia (1992) State of the Environment Report, Government of Western Australia, Perth.
Two primary effects of fragmented ecosystems are the alteration of the microclimate within and surrounding the remnant, and the isolation of each area in the landscape. Effects of these may include higher daytime temperatures, and lower night-time temperatures with an increased chance of frost, increased exposure to wind and modification of water balance as a result of increased run-off and decreased interception.111 Modification of water balance is a cause of widespread dryland salinity, increased soil erosion and sedimentation of river systems.
Time since isolation, the distance between remnants and the connectivity between remnants are important factors in determining the resultant response of species to fragmentation.112 It may take many years for fragmentation to show effects on long lived species, the presence of a species is no guarantee of continued survival. The ability of species to recolonise an area after fire, for instance, is determined by the distance from other native vegetation and the connectivity between areas. In general the smaller the remnant the greater the effect external influences will have.113 Management of smaller remnants is correspondingly more dependent on the management of external influences.
McFarlane et al.,114 suggest that agricultural development has probably irreversibly changed some aspects of the hydrological cycle. Replacement of some of the cleared vegetation is necessary to reverse the degradation process. Rehabilitation of salt affected areas requires revegetation on or near the affected area whilst prevention of further salinisation will require revegetation on recharge areas.115 Revegetation with local native species may serve to address land degradation as well as provide buffers and corridors to remnant native vegetation.
Major differences have been shown to exist between fenced and non-fenced remnants, livestock are considered the principal cause in the decline of environmental quality in unfenced remnants.116 Rehabilitation to encourage regeneration will require fencing to exclude stock and possibly weed control, seedbed preparation and seed addition.117
Fire plays an important role in maintaining natural ecosystems in the south-west of Western Australia, fire management is therefore fundamental to the management of Nature Reserves. Inappropriate fire regimes may have significant biological consequences,118 especially for remnant vegetation that is isolated and without corridors to facilitate recolonisation from unburnt areas. Fire management objectives should be based on the conservation objectives of each remnant.
Several fauna species, particularly medium sized mammals, have become extinct because of predation by foxes and the continued survival of many species is threatened by foxes and cats. Fox baiting is undertaken in some areas to protect conservation reserves.119 Work by Kinnear120 showed that foxes could be controlled with the use of 1080 baiting, and that this method of control led to the recovery of predated species.
As well as competition from agricultural weeds, another issue may be the use of non-local species, such as introduced exotic species (eg tamarisk), and introduced Australian species (eg Tasmanian blue gum), to address land degradation and move into alternative enterprises such as agroforestry. Although some of these species are useful to address land degradation they are of little benefit to biodiversity and have the potential to become problems as weeds themselves.
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111 Saunders, D.A.; Hobbs, R.J. and Margules, C.R. (1991) 'Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: A review.' In Conservation Biology 5(1):18-32.
112 Saunders, D.A.; Hobbs, R.J. and Margules, C.R. (1991) 'Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: A review.' In Conservation Biology 5(1):18-32.
113 Saunders, D.A.; Hobbs, R.J. and Margules, C.R. (1991) 'Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: A review.' In Conservation Biology 5(1):18-32.
114 McFarlane, D.J.; George, R.J. and Farrington, P. (1993) 'Changes in the hydrologic cycle.' Chapter 6 in Hobbs, R.J. and Saunders D.A. (eds) Reintegrating fragmented landscapes, Springer-Verlag, New York.
115 Hobbs, R.J. and Saunders, D.A. (1991) 'Re-integrating fragmented landscapes - a preliminary framework for the Western Australian Wheatbelt.' Journal of Environmental Management 33:161-167.
116 Scougall, S.A.; Majer, J.D. and Hobbs, R.J. (1993) 'Edge effects in grazed and ungrazed Western Australian Wheatbelt remnants in relation to ecosystem reconstruction.' Chapter 16 in Saunders, D.A.; Hobbs, R.J. and Ehrlich, P.R. (eds) Nature conservation 3: the reconstruction of fragmented ecosystems. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Norton, NSW.
117 Hobbs, R.J. and Saunders, D.A. (1991) 'Re-integrating fragmented landscapes - a preliminary framework for the Western Australian Wheatbelt.' Journal of Environmental Management 33:161-167.
118 Main, A.R. (1987) 'Management of remnants of native vegetation - A review of the problems and the development of an approach with reference to the Wheatbelt of Western Australia.' Chapter 1 in Saunders, D.A.; Hobbs, R.J. and Ehrlich, P.R. (eds) Nature conservation 3: the reconstruction of fragmented ecosystems. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Norton, NSW.
119 Government of Western Australia; 1992. State of the Environment Report, Government of Western Australia, Perth.
120 Kinnear, cited in Burbidge, A.A.; and Wallace, K.J. (1995) 'Practical Methods for Conserving Biodiversity.' In Bradstock, R.A.; Auld, T.D.; Keith, D.A.; Kingsford, R.T.; Lunney, D. and Sivertsen, D.P.(eds) Conserving biodiversity: Threats and solutions. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW.
Agricultural production is the dominant land use activity in the WA wheatbelt. It was worth some $1.85 billion (gross value of production) in 1991/92.121 Agriculture and its related industries are the main employers and are the providers of the physical and social infrastructure in much of rural WA. The cost of land degradation has been estimated to be $234 million annually.122
The region has over 639 Nature Reserves ranging in size from 0.5 to 309,000 hectares. Most reserves are small, the median size of remnants designated as Nature Reserves is 114 hectares.123 There are over 300,000 small and scattered remnants on private land covering about 2.6 million hectares.124
Identification of the economic value of remnant vegetation may encourage farmers to consider remnants as a valuable farm resource. A study prepared by ACIL125 for the Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management identified a number of 'sustainable remnant vegetation enterprises' being undertaken on WA wheatbelt farms.
About 40% of the remaining native vegetation exists as remnants on private lands, along with conservation reserves they are generally in small blocks. Because of their small size, these areas are prone to degrading effects caused by farming practices on the surrounding land. The conservation of biodiversity values in these areas is dependent upon sympathetic farming practices on the adjacent lands, indeed it may require sympathetic practices on a catchment wide basis to protect these areas from the effects of land degradation.
Objectives for biodiversity conservation are therefore closely linked with objectives for sustainable agriculture and policy measures to address biodiversity conservation need to recognise this. Lambeck126 and Wallace and Moore127 provide the following objectives and requirements for biodiversity conservation and sustainable resource use in a fragmented landscape:
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121 Australian Bureau of Statistics (1994) Value of agricultural commodities produced: Western Australia season 1991-92. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Catalogue No 7503.5.
122 Department of Agriculture, Western Australia (1991) Situation statement: Soil and land conservation programme in Western Australia. Division of Resource Management, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia.
123 Government of Western Australia (1992) State of the Environment Report, Government of Western Australia, Perth.
124 Beeston; personal comment. Cited in Commonwealth Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, Biodiversity Unit (1995) Native Vegetation Clearance, Habitat Loss and Biodiversity Decline. Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra.
125 ACIL (1993) Making profits from farm bush: An assessment of the economic returns from the sustainable use of remnant vegetation on Western Australian wheatbelt farms. A Report to The Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management, ACIL Economics and Policy Pty Ltd.
126 Lambeck, R.J. (1995) Managing for biodiversity and sustainable agriculture in the Wheatbelt of Western Australia. Unpublished Notes.
127 Wallace, K.L. and Moore, S.A. (1987) 'Management of remnant bushland for nature conservation in agricultural areas of South-Western Australia - operational and planning perspectives.' In Saunders, D.A.; Arnold, G.W.; Burbidge, A.A. and Hopkins, A.J.M. (eds) Nature conservation: The role of remnants of native vegetation. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW.
In May 1995, the WA State Government announced a new policy on clearing and management of native vegetation, to take effect immediately. This policy is important in addressing land degradation issues but also addresses a primary threat to biodiversity loss. The policy framework also provides opportunity to integrate with incentives that address biodiversity conservation issues more specifically. The policy contains a mix of regulation, education, industry development, rebates and grants. Regulations applying to restrict clearing include:
Financial incentives that provide for education, industry development and, infrastructure and management to protect remnants include:
There are many small Nature Reserves in the region that adjoin and are surrounded by land held by private landholders. As well the wheatbelt contains some 42 local government authorities. This means that liaison between State agencies, local government and private landholders is an important function of on-reserve management,128 and correspondingly it will need to be recognised within off-reserve management programs.
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128 Wallace, K.L. and Moore, S.A. (1987) 'Management of remnant bushland for nature conservation in agricultural areas of South-Western Australia - operational and planning perspectives.' In Saunders, D.A.; Arnold, G.W.; Burbidge, A.A. and Hopkins, A.J.M. (eds) Nature conservation: The role of remnants of native vegetation. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW.
The extent to which land clearing has occurred for agricultural purposes, results in the remaining remnant areas of biodiversity value being more vulnerable to external threats than internal ones. Policies that achieve satisfactory management of the remnant areas in isolation are still unlikely to be successful. Control of threats is required as a priority at the regional level and then within the area of value itself.
Control of threats across farm boundaries are likely to require improved social institutions to facilitate cooperative and negotiated actions. If tradeable rights are to be a part of negotiated actions then necessary prerequisites will include a sound knowledge of physical processes, recognition of the value of alternative outcomes and objectives, and the acceptance of easements and management agreements. Government will need to reflect the communities objectives in terms of funding of incremental costs and the setting of precautionary standards of resource use.
More than landholder goodwill and cooperation will be required. In many instances, maintenance of biodiversity values requires landholders to bear costs above private benefits. Society as a whole needs to, and needs to seen to be contributing to these incremental costs. However, policies that are designed to provide additional protection of biodiversity values and meet incremental costs should recognise and encourage altruistic behaviour and be careful to avoid stamping on existing positive community spirit.
Conservation of remnant vegetation will require ongoing management to protect against threats such as those posed by feral animals, invasive weeds, soil erosion, and inappropriate fire regimes. Farmers with good intentions often undertake management practices to maintain biodiversity values on their properties, but they may lack information on these values and how best to protect them. Providing information could act as an incentive for biodiversity conservation and help landholders carry out their good intentions more effectively. Landholders and land managers should have access to, or be provided with, reference material to help them identify flora and fauna.
The demand for rural and nature based holiday experiences may provide an opportunity for some farm businesses to take advantage of alternative forms of land use and diversify their income base. The availability of native vegetation areas on the farm can provide an added drawcard to rural based pursuits. Farmstays can also play an important role in providing accommodation adjacent to conservation reserves where other forms of service are unavailable or inappropriate to local development guidelines.
Opportunity exists for Australia to gain economic benefit from its unique and diverse plant species. A concern is that 'others' will be quicker to seize the initiative in the utilisation of this resource. It is recognised that funds are available and work is underway to investigate the potential of native plant species, but it is still important to encourage infant industries utilising native flora plantations or revegetation and to promote potential economic benefits of native vegetation as a sustainable resource.
This study highlights the importance of addressing the conservation of biodiversity as a joint approach with measures to address land degradation and sustainable agriculture issues. This will require a number of strategies to simultaneously address the particular set of threats and social conditions. These strategies are likely to operate through each of the different levels of government and non-government agencies and community groups. A suggested mix of incentives and mechanisms that targets factors such as institutional change, regulation, education, specific threats and community empowerment follows:
The effects of activities on private agricultural land frequently extend beyond the farm gate. The dominance of agricultural land use across the landscape and its close integration with areas containing biodiversity values requires the control of external effects and resource use beyond the boundary fence of areas of significant biodiversity value. For example, the protection of remnant vegetation is heavily dependent upon the control of land degradation, especially dryland salinity and the protection of fauna is dependent upon the widespread control of predation by ferals. Each set of threats requires a mix of incentives that provides for more than management of the area containing significant biodiversity values.
The Macquarie Marsh study addresses the competition between the environment, and primarily, irrigated agriculture for a limited water resource. The Macquarie Marshes are an extensive wetland system located on the Macquarie River in central NSW and comprise a natural flooding area that may extend over 100 km long and up to 25 km wide. The majority of the Marsh system, except for the 18,150 ha Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve, is on private land. The Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve is the core of the Macquarie Marsh area. It is the area most frequently flooded and contains samples of all the habitat types found in the marshes. The privately held areas also contain significant wetland areas which make a vital contribution to the value of the Marshes.129
The wet area may be reduced to less than 1,000 ha during severe droughts and expands to more than 300,000 ha after major floods.130 It is estimated that 1,280,000 ha flooded in 1955, whereas in 1990 a similar rainfall flooded only 131,000.131 This is indicative of the issues confronting the Macquarie Marshes and other wetlands in Australia, where competition from other water users has reduced the flow to the environment, and the variability of that streamflow. The Macquarie Marshes depend on water from the Macquarie River, not from local rainfall. Competition for a limited supply of water comes essentially from irrigation demands upstream. This has led to conflict over the management of the Macquarie Marshes.132 It is noted that a forthcoming and updated management plan may better address these issues.
The Macquarie Marshes are among the largest semi-permanent wetlands in south-eastern Australia. The Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve is listed under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, commonly referred to as the Ramsar Convention.133 They are also included on the National Estate Register, the National Trust Register134 and the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia.135
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129 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
130 Johnson, W. J. (1992) 'The Macquarie Marshes: Overdue for environmental restoration.' National Parks Journal 36.
131 Kingsford, R.T. (1995) Personal comment.
132 Korn, T. (1993) Water management in the Macquarie Marshes - A sociological perspective. Unpublished paper, NSW Agriculture.
133 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service and New South Wales Department of Water Resources (1994) Macquarie Marshes water management plan review: Issues paper. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service and Department of Water Resources.
134 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
135 Australian Nature Conservation Agency (1993) A Directory of important wetlands in Australia. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra.
136 Brooker, M. G. (1992) Waterbirds of the Macquarie Marshes. Unpublished Report.
137 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
The Marshes provide habitat for more than 60 species of waterbirds, of which about 42 species breed on the Marshes.136 As well as the waterbirds, approximately 130 other bird species inhabit the Macquarie Marshes along with 15 species of fish, 4 species of turtle, 30 species of lizard, 14 species of snake and 15 amphibian species.137 For some species the Marshes are home to a significant proportion of the total NSW population. During the large floods of 1990 more than 60,000 pairs of Straw-necked, Sacred and Glossy Ibis were observed to be breeding.138 The Glossy Ibis is known to breed in only nine other sites in NSW. The area is also important for nine species of migratory birds which are specified in the Japan-Australia and China-Australia Migratory Bird Treaties. The Marshes are used by 18 bird species which are classified as endangered in NSW.139
Kingsford and Thomas140 recorded a decline in waterbird species numbers and density in the northern marshes between 1983 and 1993. Corresponding surveys in three other sites (Burrendong Dam, Coolmunda Dam and Paroo River Lakes) showed no decline. Johnson141 examined the relationship between flooding and the breeding of eight species of colonially nesting waterbirds between 1986 and 1993. A minimum flood of three to four months is needed before breeding begins, and a flood of a further three to four months is needed for breeding to be successful for all species. All species nested in living, flood-dependent vegetation near main channels or lagoons.
The Marshes contain river red gum, reed and water couch, and the area is a prime example of this vegetation association. Lack of river red gum regeneration is a concern in parts of the Marsh.142 Waterlogging has killed some of these gums but in most cases reduced flooding is the major cause of loss.143 Changes to the water flow regime have altered the growth and distribution of some native plant species. Because the main channel in the North Marsh Reserve now receives a consistent but small flow in times when ordinarily it may have been dry, areas of common reed and cumbungi have increased, whilst in contrast, water couch has decreased. This is a concern because of the importance of water couch for waterbird feeding and for graziers.144 The area of reed has decreased in the South Marsh Reserve, apparently because of reduced water flow.145
Lack of water and a changed flooding regime are the greatest threats to vegetation communities of the Marshes.146 Water extraction and flow regulation of the Macquarie River for irrigation have substantially changed and reduced the natural flow regime and inundation patterns of the Macquarie Marshes. An 18 km bypass channel also diverts water from the Macquarie River around the northern part of the Marshes, further reducing the water flow to this area.147 The changes to the timing and duration of flooding have resulted in both a lack of water and in some areas, waterlogging. Other actions associated with altered land use and external effects may also pose significant threats but unless the water supply issues are successfully addressed these other effects may be considered of secondary importance.
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138 Johnson, W. J. (1992) 'The Macquarie Marshes: Overdue for environmental restoration.' National Parks Journal 36.
139 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
140 Kingsford, R.T. and Thomas, R.F. (1995) The Macquarie Marshes in arid Australia and it's waterbirds: A 50 year history of decline. Environmental Management (in press).
141 Johnson, W. J. (1994) Breeding of colonially nesting waterbirds in the Macquarie Marshes. Draft paper prepared by New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
142 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
143 Brereton, G. (1994) Macquarie Marshes management strategy. Stage 1 - biophysical investigations. Summary Report, Natural Resources Management Strategy.
144 Brereton, G. (1994) Macquarie Marshes management strategy. Stage 1 - biophysical investigations. Summary Report, Natural Resources Management Strategy.
145 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
146 Johnson, W. J. (1992) 'The Macquarie Marshes: Overdue for environmental restoration.' National Parks Journal 36.
147 Kingsford, R.T. and Thomas, R.F. (1995) The Macquarie Marshes in arid Australia and it's waterbirds: A 50 year history of decline. Environmental Management (in press).
Clearing on private lands in the Marshes has been encouraged by a perverse rule that allows irrigation only on improved pasture or cropped areas. Flooding of native pastures is at present not permitted. In order for farmers to utilise their water allocation they are required to clear the land. It is suggested that many do not wish to do so and that flooded Marsh country is very productive for cattle grazing.
Irrigation, run-off from cropped areas upstream and raised water tables may result in increased levels of salts in the water that flows through the Marshes. Saline discharges are a major concern and there are extensive areas of saline seeps in the upper sectors of the Macquarie River catchment. Saline scalds are most common in the drier downstream parts of the catchment.
Irrigated drainage can contain a range of contaminants including fertilisers, salts and residues of pesticides and herbicides.148 Of primary concern are the pesticides used in the cotton growing areas149 and the effects that these chemicals may have on breeding waterbirds. The Department of Water Resource's (DWR) licence conditions are designed to prohibit the discharge of polluted waters into any river or lake. Generally the discharge of any tailwater is prohibited.150
At present, visitation to the Nature Reserve section of the Marshes does not pose a major threat since it is closely controlled by NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS). Visitation by the general public is not generally encouraged outside open days that are held twice annually, and special education visits for students. Access to the Reserve is via private property over unsealed roads. This also serves to restrict the number of visitors. Tourism potential certainly exists and the possibility of increased visitor numbers is a factor yet to be taken advantage of fully. Tourism may have potential on private lands as well as the Nature Reserve.
Introduced fauna in the Marshes include feral pigs, foxes, rabbits, feral cats, black rats and house mice. Predation by cats and foxes appear responsible for a decline in species and numbers and wild pigs are blamed for some habitat destruction and disturbance of birds.151 Introduced plants include Noogoora and Bathurst Burr and a number of thistle species. Control is an ongoing need as floods disperse seed.152 Control measures include manual removal and spraying with herbicide outside the Reserve. The altered water regime has allowed weed species some competitive advantage in a disturbed environment. Return to a more normal flood regime may favour native plant species and reduce the weed plant populations.
Sheep and cattle grazing are the most common enterprises undertaken on the private lands but increasingly, larger areas are being sown as irrigated crops, particularly cotton.153 Over the past two decades land-use within the Macquarie Valley has undergone a change, with cotton rising in prominence to become the major irrigated crop. The area of cotton grown has increased three to four fold, this has provided increased farm income and export dollars for Australia but from a biodiversity conservation and water quality point of view, it has given rise to concern because of the high water and chemical usage on cotton relative to other crops.154
European settlement has resulted in the diversion of water resources from the Macquarie river catchment to supply urban and agricultural uses. This has increased greatly since the construction of the Burrendong and Windamere Dams, especially for the supply of water for irrigation.155 The Macquarie River system is now regulated with nine large dams having a capacity greater than 5,000 ML and five major weirs. In a normal year the Burrendong Dam can provide a regulated flow of about 475,000 ML, this is equivalent to 40% of the average yearly runoff of the Basin.156
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148 New South Wales Department of Water Resources NSW, 1991. Water Resources of the Castlereagh, Macquarie and Bogan Valley, Department of Water Resources, New South Wales.
149 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
150 New South Wales Department of Water Resources, 1991. Water Resources of the Castlereagh, Macquarie and Bogan Valley, Department of Water Resources, New South Wales.
151 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
152 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
153 Kingsford, R.T. and Thomas, R.F. (1995) The Macquarie Marshes in arid Australia and it's waterbirds: A 50 year history of decline. Environmental Management. In press.
154 Department of Water Resources New South Wales and New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1986) Water management plan for the Macquarie Marshes. Department of Water Resources, New South Wales and Johnson (1995) Personal comment.
155 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service and New South Wales Department of Water Resources (1986) Water management plan for the Macquarie Marshes. Department of Water Resources, New South Wales.
156 New South Wales Department of Water Resources and New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1986) Water management plan for the Macquarie Marshes. Department 157 New South Wales Department of Water Resources (1991) Water resources of the Castlereagh, Macquarie and Bogan Valley. Department of Water Resources, New South Wales.
The irrigated areas comprise the most significant component of a total demand, the allocation to irrigators is some 89% of the total allocation.157
The Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve Plan of Management and the Water Management Plan for the Macquarie Marshes provide a major component of conservation objectives for the Marshes that are within the Nature Reserve and on private lands. The Water Management Plan is currently under review and a draft revision of that plan was due to be released for public comment at the time of writing.
The Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve is subject to a plan of management in accordance with the provisions of the National Parks and Wildlife Act. This plan recognises that the Reserve is only a small part of the Marshes and that ensuring adequate management, particularly with respect to water allocation, for the whole area of the wetland is an important strategy.158
A Macquarie Marshes Catchment Management Committee was formed to provide a coordinated approach to land and water management. This committee is chaired by an independent member of the public and includes representatives of the local community, local government and State Government departments.159 This committee was instrumental in bringing about the current review of the Water Management Plan.
A volumetric allocation scheme was introduced for regulated streams in the Macquarie Valley in 1981. Under this scheme irrigators are given an annual allocation related to their licensed area. Irrigators can increase the amount of water available to them by acquiring allocations from other irrigators. Transfers can be temporary or permanent.160 The Macquarie Marshes Water Management Plan was instigated in 1986. Some of the rules and definitions applied under that plan are outlined below. However, despite this plan there is much evidence to suggest that the Marshes are still degrading as a result of the regulation of flow into the Marshes.
Among other rules, the Water Management Plan provides a 50,000 ML allocation to the Marshes and sets conditions of land-use that apply to irrigated land in the Marshes. This allocation will not be available in certain circumstances, such as when available water only permits 25% or less of the irrigation allowance to be supplied, except when the wildlife allocation has not been released for the preceding 3 years. A Prohibited Area is nominated within the Water Management Plan within which irrigation is not permitted. The area is delineated to include the area covered by the 1970 flood with an additional margin of 300 metres. Within this area it was decided that applications for irrigation activities would be refused and existing licences reviewed.161 Research since 1986 and observable changes to the Marshes vegetation have highlighted the need to expand the prohibited area. Flooding of unimproved native pastures with allocated irrigation water is at present not permitted. Farmers cannot utilise their water allocation without developing the land to improved pasture or to allow cropping.
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157 New South Wales Department of Water Resources (1991) Water resources of the Castlereagh, Macquarie and Bogan Valley. Department of Water Resources, New South Wales.
158 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1993) Macquarie Marshes natural reserve: Plan of management. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
159 New South Wales Department of Water Resources (1991) Water resources of the Castlereagh, Macquarie and Bogan Valley. Department of Water Resources, New South Wales.
160 New South Wales Department of Water Resources (1991) Water resources of the Castlereagh, Macquarie and Bogan Valley. Department of Water Resources, New South Wales.
161 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service and New South Wales Department of Water Resources (1994) Macquarie Marshes water management plan review: Issues paper. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service and Department of Water Resources, Sydney.
Control of threats is firstly required at the catchment level and then within the area of the Marshes themselves. Management of threats within the Marshes, and more specifically, Macquarie Marsh Nature Reserve, is secondary without adequate water entering the system from upstream delivery. This case study exemplifies the need for a working understanding of physical processes, resource use, environmental values, and co-operation between government departments. It would appear that flexibility in the definition of the amount of water permissible for irrigation and poor definition of the desired size and quality of Marsh have been sources of past indecision. An important issue is what flows are received, compared to those required to maintain the Marshes to a determined size and quality. One of the problems in addressing this question is determining the actual volume of water that passes through the Marshes under the existing rules. The extent of off-allocation usage is a major factor.
As with the wheatbelt study, control of threats across a catchment and farm boundaries is likely to require improved social institutions to facilitate cooperative and negotiated actions. If tradeable rights are to be a part of negotiated actions then necessary prerequisites will include a sound knowledge of physical processes, recognition of the value of alternative outcomes and objectives, and the acceptance of easements and management agreements. Government will need to reflect community objectives in terms of funding of incremental costs and the setting of precautionary standards of resource use. It must involve the local community in management decisions. Local members of the community have much to offer and their involvement would enhance a sense of ownership and participation.
A suggested mix of incentives and mechanisms that target factors such as institutional change, regulation, education, specific threats and community empowerment follows:
Conservation of biodiversity values within the Macquarie Marshes requires action beyond the Marsh boundary. This study provides an interesting example of the way in which use of a natural resource (water) has resulted in downstream costs (externalities) to other consumers and the environment. The primary social cost is the loss of biodiversity values as a result of reduced water flows to the environment, but other costs such as those caused by reduced water quality are also incurred. A number of strategies are suggested to address what is essentially an issue involving the allocation of property rights. These strategies are likely to operate primarily through State government agencies as they are charged with direct responsibly for most of the issues that arise in this study. However, even in this situation there is still a role for encouraging community response and desirable agricultural practices.
This case study focuses on biodiversity conservation issues in the Mallee region of NSW and the Mulga Lands of south western Queensland. It also addresses issues involving the management of the bilby and the malleefowl. The major land use in these areas is pastoralism. It is an industry that has suffered from declining terms of trade and an ongoing reduction in the rural population and associated social infrastructure. Consequently a major theme of this case study is that efforts to encourage the conservation of biodiversity in the rangelands should recognise the social and economic issues of the pastoral industry. This requires understanding of the capacity of current rangeland users to contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and the benefits that biodiversity conservation via ecotourism may be able to bring to outback communities. It recognised that a Draft National Strategy for Rangeland Management has been produced and that components of this strategy address biodiversity conservation issues.
Although biodiversity awareness is increasing in the Western Division of NSW, there is still a lack of knowledge of biodiversity values in most areas.162 Table 4.1 indicates the status of vertebrate fauna in the Western Division of NSW. Interestingly, 14 of the 60 threatened birds in the Western Division are mallee species and in fact only five mallee birds were not listed as threatened.163
Table 4.1 Status of fauna in the Western Division of NSW
The Yathong area has value as a site for the reintroduction of the malleefowl. The malleefowl was once abundant throughout much of southern and central Australia, but has declined in range and abundance to the point where the species is now dwindling towards extinction.164 The total number of malleefowl in NSW was estimated in 1985 to be around 745 pairs.165 More recent surveys have noted further decline in numbers. The malleefowl is not only an endangered species, it is an important 'flagship' species.
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162 New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (1995) Draft project plan. Western Region Biodiversity Conservation Project. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney.
163 Smith, P.J.; Pressey, R.L. and Smith, J.E. (1994) 'Birds of particular conservation concern in the Western Division of New South Wales.' Biological Conservation 69:315-38.
164 Priddel, D. (1990a) 'Conservation of the Malleefowl in New South Wales: An experimental management strategy.' In Noble, J.C.; Joss, P.J. and Jones, G.K. (eds) The Mallee lands: A conservation perspective. CSIRO, East Melbourne.
165 Priddel, D. and Wheeler, R. (1994) 'Mortality of captive-raised Malleefowl, Leipoa ocellata, released into a Mallee Remnant Within the Wheat-Belt of New South Wales.' Wildlife Resources 21:543-52.
There is also a lack of detailed knowledge on the level and status of biodiversity in the regions of south west Queensland. Within the Mulga Lands, of 66 regional ecosystems that were defined on the basis of vegetation type, preliminary results indicate that five are endangered or vulnerable. Many others have been highly modified. Rare and threatened fauna of the Mulga Lands are listed in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Status of Fauna of the Mulga in Queensland
Mitchell Grass Downs, which cover about 6 per cent of Australia, provide locations that are habitat to a population of bilbies. The bilby, although once widespread across inland Australia, is an endangered species nationally. Populations are still considered to be declining. The south west Queensland population is estimated to be between 600 and 700 animals.
The major threatening processes to biodiversity values in the rangelands generally result from the effects of pastoralism and other human induced changes such as: grazing pressure, introduced species, altered fire regimes, and clearance of native vegetation. Overgrazing reduces feed availability, the shelter provided by plant material, and alters plant species composition. Herbivores that contribute to overgrazing in the rangelands include introduced stock (cattle and sheep), feral species (rabbits and goats), as well as native species like kangaroos that have increased in number as a result of the provision of stock watering points. Stock and feral pests with hard hooves can also degrade the exposed topsoil and destroy shallow burrows. These effects are implicated in the decline of native species and in land degradation processes.
Historically, Australia's rangelands were subject to frequent burning by Aboriginals, this produced a mosaic of different aged patches of vegetation. This has changed as European pastoralists reduced the use of fire as a management tool. Altered fire regimes in the mallee, which is highly flammable, are known to have had a severe impact on populations of malleefowl.166 The build up of so called "woody weeds" highlights the relationship between grazing and altered fire regimes, and illustrates the need for various control measures, including fire itself. The suppression of natural fire regimes is thought to contribute to the woody weed problem. As such, controlled use of fire can be an effective tool for managing woody weeds.167
Introduced predators are also considered to be a major cause of decline in mammal species across the rangelands. The extinction of many critical weight range marsupials and rodents (35-5500g) since European settlement seems to support this, as these species are particularly susceptible to introduced predators. Foxes and feral cats remain abundant and it is clear that foxes, at least, play a major role in the extinction of both remnant and re-introduced populations.168
Current commercial utilisation of species is somewhat limited and is not considered to be a direct threat to biodiversity. Commercial apiculture in mallee reserves (and possibly mulga reserves), may have adverse effects on native flower visiting fauna because introduced honeybees take up to 90 per cent of available nectar.169 Similarly, commercial harvesting of broombush in remnant mallee areas is perceived to reduce mature habitat refuge for several vertebrate species.170
The Western Division of NSW is used predominantly for grazing of sheep and some cattle on the native vegetation of pastoral leases. Pastures constitute 87.6 per cent of the Division's land area, while croplands and other forms of intensive land use occupy only 1.3 per cent of the land area.171 The Division has six National Parks and 10 Nature Reserves together comprising 2.6 per cent of the land area of the region.172 There is also one Aboriginal area (11,325 ha) that functions as a reserve for nature conservation. Up to 97.5 per cent of the Division's land area is leased by the Western Lands Commission. The Mallee region is a multi-use resource, and as such the conservation objectives for the region should take into account current resource uses as far as possible. The main objective is to conserve endangered species such as the malleefowl by reducing the impact of threatening processes.
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166 Benshemesh, J. (1990) 'Management of Malleefowl with regard to fire.' Appendix 3 in Noble, J.C.; Joss, P.J. and Jones, G.K. (eds) The Mallee lands: A conservation perspective. CSIRO, East Melbourne.
167 Harrington, G.N.; Mills, D.M.D.; Pressland, A.J. and Hodgkinson, K.C. (1984) 'Semi-arid woodlands.' In Harrington, G.N.; Wilson, A.D. and Young, M.D. (eds) Management of Australia's Rangelands. CSIRO, Melbourne.
168 James, C.D.; Landsberg, J. and Morton, S.R. (1995) 'Ecological functioning in Arid Australia and research to assist conservation of biodiversity.' Draft submitted to Pacific Conservation Biology, February.
169 Paton, D.C. (1990) 'Budgets for the use of floral resources in Mallee-Health.' In Noble, J.C.; Joss, P.J. and Jones, G.K. (eds) The Mallee lands: A conservation perspective. CSIRO, East Melbourne.
170 Woinarski, J.C.Z. (1989) 'Broombush harvesting in Southeastern Australia.' In Noble, J.C. and Bradstock, R. (eds) Mediterranean landscapes in Australia: Mallee ecosystems and their management. CSIRO, East Melbourne.
171 Smith, P.J.; Pressey, R.L. and Smith, J.E. (1994) 'Birds of particular conservation concern in the Western Division of New South Wales.' Biological Conservation 69:315-38.
172 Dickman, C.R.; Pressey, R.L.; Lim, L. and Parnaby, H.E. (1993) 'Mammals of particular conservation concern in the Western Division of New South Wales.' Biological Conservation 65:219-48.
As in the Mallee region, the primary land use in south west Queensland is rangeland pastoralism. Although extensive clearing or pasture improvement is not necessarily undertaken, grazing pressure nevertheless affects the condition of the region. In the Mulga Lands the most significant component of land degradation is total herbivore grazing pressure.173 Throughout the semi-arid woodlands there has been a major shift in the composition of understorey vegetation, from dominance by perennial grasses to dominance by native shrubs. Grazing pressure results from sheep, cattle, kangaroos and feral goats. A conservation objective, therefore, should be to integrate efforts to conserve biodiversity with pastoral activity.
Pastoralism is still the predominate activity currently undertaken on Australia's rangelands. Consequently, the importance of working with rangelands users to promote biodiversity conservation should be emphasised. As the main users of the rangelands, pastoralists are in a strong position to provide informed stewardship of biodiversity values. The difficulties faced by pastoralists in making a living off the rangelands must be addressed if pastoralists are to be in a position to conserve biodiversity and sustainably manage Australia's rangelands. Broadening the economic base of pastoral activities has been suggested and ecotourism represents one opportunity. According to some reports, tourism now ranks substantially higher than pastoralism as an income earner in the rangelands.174
In NSW, a State-wide conservation strategy has been prepared for the management of the Malleefowl.175 The strategy includes the creation of a 'Malleefowl Conservation Zone' within the northern mallee block on Yathong Nature Reserve. Efforts to conserve malleefowl within this zone include: prevention of fire; goat, fox, and rabbit control; a captive breeding program; and monitoring and assessment. The Yathong Malleefowl Recovery Program operates as part of this strategy.176 An interesting aspect of the program is the Fox Control Program. Neighbouring landholders are provided with fox baits by NSW NPWS and liaise closely with extension officers from the Cobar regional office.
In a sense this represents a direct payment to landholders by way of a grant in-kind, as baits are provided free of charge. The aim is to create a buffer zone of low fox density surrounding the core conservation area. All reports suggest neighbours are happy to participate in the program as they are benefiting by way of increased lambing rates; one neighbour is running free-range chickens for the first time in many years.177
A draft national recovery plan exists for the bilby,178 and a more recent rescue plan has also been drafted for the bilby in Queensland.179 Much of both plans is concerned with filling the information gaps that exist in relation to the bilby, its habitat, and threats to it. Two approaches to conserving bilbies are advocated in the Queensland rescue plan: the acquisition of land to be designated as National Park, and the management of populations through conservation agreements with landholders, including the introduction of Nature Refuges (conservation easements).
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173 Sattler, P.S. (1994) The greater conservation gain from a "New" Kangaroo industry for the Mulga Lands: Ecologically sustainable management. Paper presented to the Conference on Conservation Through Sustainable Use of Wildlife. Department of Environment and Heritage, Brisbane.
174 Stafford Smith, M. (1994) Sustainable production systems and natural resource management in the Rangelands. Natural Resources. Outlook '94 Conference. ABARE Publication, Canberra.
175 Priddle, D. (1990b) Conservation statement and strategy for the management of Malleefowl in New South Wales. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney.
176 Priddel, D. (1990a) 'Conservation of the Malleefowl in New South Wales: An experimental management strategy.' In Noble, J.C.; Joss, P.J. and Jones, G.K. (eds) The Mallee lands: A conservation perspective. CSIRO, East Melbourne.
177 Rob Wheeler (1995) Personal comment.
178 Southgate, R. (1994) Draft recovery plan for the Greater Bilby. A report submitted to the Australian Nature Conservation Agency. Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, Alice Springs.
179 Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage (1995a) A rescue plan for the Greater Bilby (Macrotis lagotis) in Queensland. Department of Environment and Heritage, Brisbane.
The preferred mix of incentives and mechanisms is targeted to involve and utilise the expertise, goodwill and resources of existing users of the rangeland as far as possible. To encourage resource users of rangelands to protect biodiversity values the following mix is suggested:
The two rangeland areas that comprise this case study are only part of the rangelands that comprises the majority of the Australian continent, however many of the issues raised here are applicable to that area. A major issue, with respect to the conservation of biodiversity, is the ability of existing land/leaseholders to derive income from alternative activities where pastoralism conflicts with conservation objectives. Measures to address biodiversity conservation in the rangelands need also to consider socio-economic issues.
The NSW fisheries case study was chosen because of the strong move towards the greater use of incentives by both the NSW Government and the Commonwealth Governments, the complex administrative arrangements already in place, because it involved the explicit harvest of an attribute of biodiversity, and the considerable threats to biodiversity from pollution between Wollongong and Newcastle coupled with the large amount of coastal development along much of the coast. Perhaps the most interesting aspect is the jurisdictional complexity of the region.
Generally the management of all waters within three nautical miles of the coast is defined as State responsibility. The rest of the area, out to 200 nautical miles from the coastal headlands, is under the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth Government. But this situation is unworkable so, under a formal Offshore Constitutional Settlement, responsibilities have been redefined so that NSW has responsibility for all recreational fishing out to 200 nautical miles and for the majority of types of fishing in the northern half of the State out to a line approximately 80 nautical miles from the coast. In recognition of the problems that these arrangements pose for fisheries management, the existing suite of Off-shore Constitutional Arrangements is being renegotiated.
By world standards, NSW fisheries are largely low in productivity and deep water in character. It is the inshore, coastal and estuarine environments where threats appear to be more acute, but this may only be because we know more about these areas. Around 90% of the marine groups found in this area are endemic to the region. A key consideration is the status of the State's estuaries, which are very important as nursery areas for many fish species and other marine organisms. Examples of such species include school prawns, yellowfin bream, luderick and sea mullet. The water that flows from estuaries also influences the surrounding marine environment. Key problems include dieback of seagrass, and the loss of coastal saltmarshes and mangroves through land fill and reclamation. In the last few decades the Clarence River has lost 60% of its seagrass beds. Declaration of some of these areas as marine protected areas helps to reduce impacts on biodiversity but does not stop the flow of pollutants onto them. Many estuaries have significant pollution problems.
One of the fundamental causes of decline in biodiversity values throughout the marine and coastal regions of NSW is human population increase which is resulting in increasing pressure on all aspects of the environment in this area. The resultant landscape development and modification has led to the first class of threats examined in the case study:
These losses, in turn, threaten ecosystem, species and genetic diversity. Of the above issues, arguably pollution poses the most serious threats to biodiversity. A considerable but unknown quantity of silt flows from rural areas. Urban centres discharge large amounts of sewage, full treatment of much of this sewage is rare. Another main source is storm water run-off which is primarily a function of the proportion of impervious area in the catchment.
A second class of threats - direct species use - arises from attempts to exploit natural populations of marine animals - fish, molluscs, crayfish, etc. Each year, well over 100 species of fish are caught within the study area and sold by commercial fishers into NSW markets. Recreational fishing pressure, especially in the inner northern half of the region, is high. Estuaries are prized for the recreational and tourism opportunities they offer. Stocks of a number of fish species exploited by the commercial industry alone and also those exploited by both the commercial and recreational sectors are in decline. In response a range of new more output-orientated systems are being introduced. Using individually-tradeable property-right mechanisms, like quotas and fishery shares, they seek to reduce the fishing effort until the stock recovers.
The third class of threat, gene pool decline, comes from the direct effects of an introduced species on other species. One example of this is the introduction of the Pacific oyster. Deliberately introduced into other parts of Australia it was transferred accidentally to New South Wales where it is dislodging the Sydney rock oyster in a manner that may lead to a substantial decline in the genetic diversity of the local rock oysters and/or significant modification of their genetic structure. The flow-on effects of this on the State's near coastal ecosystems are unknown.
Finally, an underlying cause of many of the above problems needs to be mentioned. All the marine ecosystems in the area are closely interconnected and poorly understood. Most management involves trial and error, whilst many problems can be identified, data on most of the State's marine resources are patchy and, in most cases, inadequate for fine-scale management.
The most striking observation that arises from the fisheries case study is that many of the threats to marine biodiversity arise from the land-based activity. Moreover, to an outsider looking in, fisheries managers are insufficiently involved in the control of land-sourced pollution and habitat loss. Development of the institutional structures necessary to facilitate this, however, presents a major challenge. But involvement is a prerequisite for progress. If this administrative barrier could be overcome then there would be considerable opportunity for ecological improvement especially in estuarine biodiversity values. The case study suggests co-management of land-based threats to the marine environment as the most administratively feasible means to make land managers sufficiently aware of the impacts their decisions have on marine biodiversity. The case study goes on to suggest that the incentive instruments likely to be most effective in reducing non-point sources of marine pollution, like silt and agricultural chemicals. Conservation covenants can be used to protect remnant vegetation which filters run-off and reduces disturbance. At present, discussions about conservation covenants tend to focus on the issue of how well represented an area of native vegetation is and down play their role in reducing threats at other locations. This case study highlights the point that they also offer an environmentally-effective means to reduce a cause of threats to biodiversity.
The spatial interdependence of biodiversity highlights the interdependence of species and the critical role of ecosystem functions and processes. Fishing, however, tends to be managed by species and forms of harvesting rather than by fishery ecosystem. From a biodiversity perspective, such a species/catch method approach appears to be illogical. As a result, maintenance of marine habitats and the ecological systems that feed them are rarely central to the commercial fishing policy agenda. The challenge is to find ways to add an ecosystem perspective to the management framework which recognises that some fish cross many ecosystem and administrative boundaries. If ecosystem orientations can be built into the framework, then the overall prospects for biodiversity conservation will be greater. New institutional approaches, such as the use of co-management mechanisms which include people concerned about biodiversity, are suggested as the most administratively feasible means of overcoming that barrier. The increased use of co-management arrangements would enhance community acceptance of management decisions.
A related issue is the linkage between general resource management and biodiversity. Across the board, there is a need for legislative change to make it easier for local government, State Government, co-management bodies and the Commonwealth Government to make much greater use of property-right arrangements, like tradeable emission permits based on the volume emitted and, in the case of storm water, on the areas that contribute to run-off. Implementation of these arrangements would will be most economically efficient if attention to compensation, registration, mortgage and enforcement requirements and the development of enabling legislation could speed structural adjustment. Economic efficiency can be made ecologically dependable by embodying the ecological targets set and the regulatory conditions that attach to the permits in management plans which include full consideration of biodiversity values.
Finally, in many cases, the price signals given to resource users do not provide incentive for biodiversity conservation. For example, despite the fact that much fishery management is small scale and its greatest deficiency is knowledge, the research tax incentives available to big industry for research are not available to the fishing industry because the thresholds exclude small-scale research. If changed to support small scale research, fishers would have an incentive to participate in this process, would own the conclusions and incorporate them in their management plans. The motivational dimension of offering fishers the chance to get involved in this activity should not be under-estimated. Management decisions inspired by such research are likely to be more politically acceptable.
There is also a need to finance the conservation of marine diversity. The most equitable and efficient means to do this is to introduce a set of levies and charges that make those who use and cause threats to marine biodiversity contribute more to the costs of controlling and preventing threats. More formally, the incentives identified in this case study are:
Many of the threats to marine biodiversity arise from the land, yet fisheries managers are not sufficiently involved in the management of onshore threats. Development of the management structures to facilitate greater involvement of fishery managers presents a major challenge. But involvement in the process does seem a pre-requisite for action that includes consideration of impacts of land based activity on estuarine and marine environments. Discussions about conservation covenants, for example, tend to focus on the issue of how well represented an area of native vegetation is in a land-based protected area network. The role of such areas in protecting marine biodiversity from pollution is rarely part of the agenda.
The spatial dimensions of biodiversity considered in this case study highlight the interdependence of species and the critical role of ecosystem functions and processes. Fishing, however, tends to be managed by form of human activity rather than fishery ecosystem. The risk for this approach is that the maintenance of marine habitats and the ecological systems that feed them are never central to the agenda. If stronger ecosystem orientations can be built into the framework, then the overall prospects for biodiversity conservation will be greater. Moreover, the level of harvest that can be sustained may be greater. The underlying message that pervades this case study is the notion that biodiversity conservation requires action across the full spectrum of economic, institutional and policy opportunities. The preferred mix is very much a mix that involves many instruments - each targeted at different threats and fine tuned by carefully designed consultative mechanisms.
This case study of the potential for incentives to promote conservation of biodiversity specifically addresses the potential for nature based and ecotourism (NBE) to act as an incentive for biodiversity conservation. Kangaroo Island is Australia's third largest island and is situated 13 kilometres from the south-eastern coast of South Australia and about 120 kilometres south-west of Adelaide. Sheep grazing for wool and meat are the dominant agricultural activities, conservation and associated activities are also important with almost 30 per cent of the island within National Parks, Wilderness Protection Areas and Conservation Parks. These natural attractions are resulting in tourism becoming a predominant Kangaroo Island activity. This is being promoted by the South Australian Government which sees the island as one of the major South Australian tourist destinations. Based on current targets tourist numbers will reach and probably exceed 180,000 per annum in five years time.
Kangaroo Island has a number of endemic species of flora and fauna and special features that contribute important biodiversity values and provide attractions for tourists. Other notable points of interest include the freedom from foxes and rabbits, and the absence of aboriginal habitation for about the last 2000 years, the latter having resulted in a different fire regime from that on the mainland. There are a number of threatened species of flora and fauna. The Glossy Black Cockatoo is the most critically endangered vertebrate on the island and has attracted a deal of interest and community response for its protection.
Native fauna represent one of the main attractions for visitors to Kangaroo Island, the Australian Sea-Lions and the New Zealand Fur-Seals especially. The colony of Australian Sea-lions at Seal Bay on the southern coast of the island is one of the island's major tourist attractions. This species is considered to be rare under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1972-81. Almost two-thirds of the world population occur in South Australia, with the Seal Bay population being significant. Seal Bay is the only breeding site on Kangaroo Island and it is one of only two or three breeding sites of the seal in South Australia.180
Other attractions include: the Southern Right Whale which visits the southern coast between June and October, Fairy Penguins which can be seen after sunset along the rocks near the Penneshaw and Kingscote jetties as they return from fishing, and the Tamar Wallaby which are still abundant on Kangaroo Island. Kangaroo Island is also the only part of South Australia where the Glossy Black Cockatoo occurs regularly. The total island population consisting of about 150 birds, of which most are males,181 is restricted to Casuarina woodland. Native species that have been introduced, such as the Platypus, Koala and the Cape Barren Goose are also of interest to visitors.
Ecotourism and nature based tourism pose a number of potential threats to the Island's biodiversity values. Current tourist numbers already pose threats and these will be exacerbated as the number of visitors increase. There are already a number of tourist sites which receive concentrated tourist numbers in peak season. These sites are Seal Bay, a number of sites in Flinders Chase National Park and Kelly Hill Caves. To address these pressures at these sites National Parks has introduced a number of policies and developed infrastructure to meet current and projected tourist demand. As numbers increase further these may require review. Also, visitor pressures are exerted on areas not managed under the parks system, these areas will require a different set of policies to manage them appropriately.
Human visitation to sensitive sites has the potential to adversely affect biodiversity. People and vehicle (4WD on beaches especially) movement along the coast can disturb breeding sites of birds and seal pups. A number of coastal species are threatened on the island. These include the Hooded Plover, which lays its eggs on the beach and on sand dunes. There are only about 150 birds on the island.182 Some vegetation is also susceptible to damage by the trampling of stock and people, particularly in some fragile coastal ecosystems. The number of road kills would also be expected to increase with increases in road traffic.
Accidental fires, as a result of camping and burning on farm lands, may be a serious threat to the Black Glossy Cockatoo as its habitat is adversely affected by extreme fire events. The Cockatoo feeds on the seeds of the Drooping Sheoak and nests in Sugar Gum hollows.183 One of the most important long-term influences on the Drooping Sheoak is the frequency of fire. An increase in fire frequency resulting from increased tourism (stray BBQ's) may detrimentally influence the viability of Sheoak stands.
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180 Robinson, A.C.; and Dennis, T.E. (1988) 'The status and management of seal populations in South Australia.' In Augee M.L. (ed) Marine mammals of Australasia: Field biology and captive management. The Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
181 Department of Land Management, South Australia (1993) Report to the Minister of Environment and Land Management on Kangaroo Island areas recommended for protection under the Wilderness Protection Act, 1992. Wilderness Advisory
182 Dennis, T.E. (1995) Personal comment. Roadside vegetation clearing is still taking place as the road network is upgraded to cater, in part, for the pressure of increased tourist numbers. Recently legal action was taken by Kangaroo Island Eco-Action against the District Council of Kingscote over their treatment of roadside vegetation. An area of endangered plant species was disturbed during roadwork even though the Council was aware of their presence. The court action is still proceeding.
Dogs and cats have been responsible for a number of penguin deaths along the foreshore at Kingscote. Dogs that attack penguins in urban areas are usually destroyed. These animals may belong to either visitors or locals, but as tourist numbers increase, there is increased likelihood of this type of disturbance. Domestic cats have very likely had an influence on numbers and distribution of the smaller native animals. It is possible that the southern brown bandicoot and the Kangaroo Island endemic marsupial mouse may be at risk from predation by feral cats.
Kangaroo Island permanent residents number about 4,000, the main service centres are Kingscote, American River and Penneshaw. Accommodation for tourists is concentrated in these areas, which are all located on the eastern side of the island. Tourists visiting the western end of the island generally return to accommodation at the eastern end. Many island roads are unsealed. There are a small number of ecotourism operations on the island. These are modest operations that cater for tourists seeking a highly interpreted, nature based experience. The market is generally aimed at the top end international market and at tourists who want visits of more than one day.
During 1993 120,000 people visited Kangaroo Island, of these approximately one third of visits were day trips, while two thirds stayed one night or more.184 Up to 100,000 people visit Seal Bay each year with peak levels occurring in December and January. Of these, almost half are on the island as day visitors. During January 1995 there were 18,000 visitors to Seal Bay. It is anticipated by the South Australian Tourist Commission that visitor numbers will reach 180,000 by the year 2000. It is possible that numbers might be as high as 270,000 if marketing and development of the island is effective.
Visitor patterns changed substantially with the introduction of car ferries, and more recently with the introduction of the Super Flyte Ferry (Fast Ferry) transporting passengers only. This ferry, which transports visitors directly to the island from Glenelg, is capable of transporting 500 people a day. It has the capacity to impact on the type of tourism attracted to the island, and on the island community itself. This impact concerns Island residents.
The South Australian Tourism Commission aims to promote Kangaroo Island as a pre-eminent international eco-tourism destination. Tourism Kangaroo Island is responsible for the development, marketing and management of the tourist industry on the island. It has developed the Kangaroo Island Tourism Development Policy, which works towards the development and marketing of an 'ecologically sustainable tourism model.' This encourages a nature based industry, with a low environmental impact and high quality experience. Visitors are encouraged to spend longer than just a day . High delivery transport appears to be in conflict with the tourist model put forward in the Kangaroo Island Tourism Development Policy and the Sustainable Development Strategy for Kangaroo Island.
Kangaroo Island has a number of endemic species of flora and fauna and special features that contribute important biodiversity values and provide attractions for tourists. Other notable points of interest include the freedom from foxes and rabbits, and the absence of aboriginal habitation for about the last 2000 years, the latter having resulted in a different fire regime from that on the mainland. There are a number of threatened species of flora and fauna. The Glossy Black Cockatoo is the most critically endangered vertebrate on the island and has attracted a deal of interest and community response for its protection.
Native fauna represent one of the main attractions for visitors to Kangaroo Island, the Australian Sea-Lions and the New Zealand Fur-Seals especially. The colony of Australian Sea-lions at Seal Bay on the southern coast of the island is one of the island's major tourist attractions. This species is considered to be rare under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1972-81. Almost two-thirds of the world population occur in South Australia, with the Seal Bay population being significant. Seal Bay is the only breeding site on Kangaroo Island and it is one of only two or three breeding sites of the seal in South Australia.180
Other attractions include: the Southern Right Whale which visits the southern coast between June and October, Fairy Penguins which can be seen after sunset along the rocks near the Penneshaw and Kingscote jetties as they return from fishing, and the Tamar Wallaby which are still abundant on Kangaroo Island. Kangaroo Island is also the only part of South Australia where the Glossy Black Cockatoo occurs regularly. The total island population consisting of about 150 birds, of which most are males,181 is restricted to Casuarina woodland. Native species that have been introduced, such as the Platypus, Koala and the Cape Barren Goose are also of interest to visitors.
Ecotourism and nature based tourism pose a number of potential threats to the Island's biodiversity values. Current tourist numbers already pose threats and these will be exacerbated as the number of visitors increase. There are already a number of tourist sites which receive concentrated tourist numbers in peak season. These sites are Seal Bay, a number of sites in Flinders Chase National Park and Kelly Hill Caves. To address these pressures at these sites National Parks has introduced a number of policies and developed infrastructure to meet current and projected tourist demand. As numbers increase further these may require review. Also, visitor pressures are exerted on areas not managed under the parks system, these areas will require a different set of policies to manage them appropriately.
Human visitation to sensitive sites has the potential to adversely affect biodiversity. People and vehicle (4WD on beaches especially) movement along the coast can disturb breeding sites of birds and seal pups. A number of coastal species are threatened on the island. These include the Hooded Plover, which lays its eggs on the beach and on sand dunes. There are only about 150 birds on the island.182 Some vegetation is also susceptible to damage by the trampling of stock and people, particularly in some fragile coastal ecosystems. The number of road kills would also be expected to increase with increases in road traffic.
Accidental fires, as a result of camping and burning on farm lands, may be a serious threat to the Black Glossy Cockatoo as its habitat is adversely affected by extreme fire events. The Cockatoo feeds on the seeds of the Drooping Sheoak and nests in Sugar Gum hollows.183 One of the most important long-term influences on the Drooping Sheoak is the frequency of fire. An increase in fire frequency resulting from increased tourism (stray BBQ's) may detrimentally influence the viability of Sheoak stands.
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180 Robinson, A.C.; and Dennis, T.E. (1988) 'The status and management of seal populations in South Australia.' In Augee M.L. (ed) Marine mammals of Australasia: Field biology and captive management. The Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
181 Department of Land Management, South Australia (1993) Report to the Minister of Environment and Land Management on Kangaroo Island areas recommended for protection under the Wilderness Protection Act, 1992. Wilderness Advisory Committee.
182 Dennis, T.E. (1995) Personal comment.
Roadside vegetation clearing is still taking place as the road network is upgraded to cater, in part, for the pressure of increased tourist numbers. Recently legal action was taken by Kangaroo Island Eco-Action against the District Council of Kingscote over their treatment of roadside vegetation. An area of endangered plant species was disturbed during roadwork even though the Council was aware of their presence. The court action is still proceeding.
Dogs and cats have been responsible for a number of penguin deaths along the foreshore at Kingscote. Dogs that attack penguins in urban areas are usually destroyed. These animals may belong to either visitors or locals, but as tourist numbers increase, there is increased likelihood of this type of disturbance. Domestic cats have very likely had an influence on numbers and distribution of the smaller native animals. It is possible that the southern brown bandicoot and the Kangaroo Island endemic marsupial mouse may be at risk from predation by feral cats.
Kangaroo Island permanent residents number about 4,000, the main service centres are Kingscote, American River and Penneshaw. Accommodation for tourists is concentrated in these areas, which are all located on the eastern side of the island. Tourists visiting the western end of the island generally return to accommodation at the eastern end. Many island roads are unsealed. There are a small number of ecotourism operations on the island. These are modest operations that cater for tourists seeking a highly interpreted, nature based experience. The market is generally aimed at the top end international market and at tourists who want visits of more than one day.
During 1993 120,000 people visited Kangaroo Island, of these approximately one third of visits were day trips, while two thirds stayed one night or more.184 Up to 100,000 people visit Seal Bay each year with peak levels occurring in December and January. Of these, almost half are on the island as day visitors. During January 1995 there were 18,000 visitors to Seal Bay. It is anticipated by the South Australian Tourist Commission that visitor numbers will reach 180,000 by the year 2000. It is possible that numbers might be as high as 270,000 if marketing and development of the island is effective.
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183 Department of Land Management, South Australia (1993) Report to the Minister of Environment and Land Management on Kangaroo Island areas recommended for protection under the Wilderness Protection Act, 1992. Wilderness Advisory Committee.
184 Crinion, D. and Dyer, H. (1995) 'Tourism.' Sustainable development strategy. Working Paper 1, Kangaroo Island Sustainable Development Steering Committee, Office of Project Coordination, Department of the Premier and Cabinet, Adelaide.
Visitor patterns changed substantially with the introduction of car ferries, and more recently with the introduction of the Super Flyte Ferry (Fast Ferry) transporting passengers only. This ferry, which transports visitors directly to the island from Glenelg, is capable of transporting 500 people a day. It has the capacity to impact on the type of tourism attracted to the island, and on the island community itself. This impact concerns Island residents.
The South Australian Tourism Commission aims to promote Kangaroo Island as a pre-eminent international eco-tourism destination. Tourism Kangaroo Island is responsible for the development, marketing and management of the tourist industry on the island. It has developed the Kangaroo Island Tourism Development Policy, which works towards the development and marketing of an 'ecologically sustainable tourism model.' This encourages a nature based industry, with a low environmental impact and high quality experience. Visitors are encouraged to spend longer than just a day . High delivery transport appears to be in conflict with the tourist model put forward in the Kangaroo Island Tourism Development Policy and the Sustainable Development Strategy for Kangaroo Island.
183 Department of Land Management, South Australia (1993) Report to the Minister of Environment and Land Management on Kangaroo Island areas recommended for protection under the Wilderness Protection Act, 1992. Wilderness Advisory Committee.
184 Crinion, D. and Dyer, H. (1995) 'Tourism.' Sustainable development strategy. Working Paper 1, Kangaroo Island Sustainable Development Steering Committee, Office of Project Coordination, Department of the Premier and Cabinet, Adelaide.
Management of the Seal Bay sea lion colony has been undertaken by the National Parks and Wildlife Service since 1972. In 1977, a Management Plan was developed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service to minimise the effects of visitors on the sea-lions, particularly during the breeding season.185 Prior to this, access and facilities were largely the responsibility of Kingscote District Council. During that period, "ad hoc development of the area resulted in considerable erosion of the cliff and sand dune systems, with people inadvertently clambering through significant pup refuge areas".186
To control numbers and protect the animals on the beach, guided tours by rangers and trained tour operators were introduced in 1987 and entry was restricted to those tourists with a guide.187 The National Parks and Wildlife Service has a policy of no more than 100 visitors on the beach at any time. Access to the main beach is by guided tour only; guided tours are of 45 minutes duration and cater for private groups and bus tours of up to 30 people. Some bus operators are trained by National Parks and are permitted to provide the required supervision of their own groups. The coastal areas adjacent to the main beach are Prohibited Areas. Revenue from ticket sales has enabled the improvement of infrastructure at Seal Bay, including a visitors reception centre and boardwalk to the beach.
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85 Robinson, A.C.; and Dennis, T.E. (1988) 'The status and management of seal populations in South Australia.' In Augee M.L. (ed) Marine mammals of Australasia: Field biology and captive management. The Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
186 Robinson, A.C.; and Dennis, T.E. (1988) 'The status and management of seal populations in South Australia.' In Augee M.L. (ed) Marine mammals of Australasia: Field biology and captive management. The Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
187 Vickery, F. (1994) Seal Bay management strategy. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Adelaide. At peak times it has been necessary to regulate the traffic flow between the picnic area and the beach. The management plan recommended the relocation of roads and carparks, alteration of walking access routes and the provision of observation areas. In addition, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources has proposed a number of new strategies at Seal Bay to cope with increasing visitor numbers in the short term. These include: a new boardwalk to facilitate alternative tours, a tourist shuttle service from the Bales Beach carpark in the peak season to alleviate congestion in the Seal Bay carpark, and a booking system for tour operators.
An island park pass has been developed by the managers of the National and Conservation Parks to facilitate funding for park facility infrastructure and interpretation. Major developments in the parks are limited to high visitation areas, in particular Cape Borda, Cape du Couedic, Remarkable Rocks, the Rocky River Headquarters area and Seal Bay. Developments such as viewing platforms and footpaths are important in mitigating disturbance and damage to the sites and associated flora and fauna. Infrastructure is especially important in controlling the disturbance and allowing safe viewing at the seal colonies.
The effects of ecotourism and nature based tourism on Kangaroo Island's biodiversity are likely to be best addressed by a mix of strategies. This study highlights a number of strategies that operate at different levels of government and with a different mix of incentive and regulation. A mix of mechanisms are suggested below, to target factors such as institutional change, regulation, education, specific threats and community empowerment.
The community are in general agreement that the most suitable form of tourism for the island is low impact nature based tourism with longer staying tourists providing money across a broad spectrum of the local community. However, they feel that difficulties arise with this approach when decisions at a State level override those at a local level. A priority is the development of one island management authority with the amalgamation of the two existing councils. This should facilitate the development of island wide biodiversity guidelines and policies and provide a stronger focal group with a responsibility to liaise with other levels of government. Combining resources into one authority should also strengthen the administrative and management capacity.
The availability and distribution of information is considered to be an important factor in developing and reinforcing social attitudes. Baseline information is required to assist decision making. Building instruments and mechanisms onto existing structures such as Landcare could be an effective way of conserving biodiversity on the island. Information should also be available to tourists, tour operators, farmers and the council on the importance of biodiversity conservation. Often people are not aware of the consequences of their actions on the biodiversity values in an area.
Some of the funds required for programs could be funded with the introduction of an environmental levy for visitors arriving on the island. A levy could be made part of the cost of an airfare or ferry fare. Such a levy could also be used as an incentive to encourage longer stays. This would operate by charging a single fee, regardless of the length of stay, or by reducing a daily rate over the visit.
Visitor numbers could be controlled with a ceiling on total visitor pressure at any one time period. This may not necessarily be required for the island as a whole in the immediate future but may be applicable for certain popular sites of interest that are threatened by this visitor pressure. Other options include, first in first served, either by attendance or by advanced booking, a ballot or lottery approach and the use of price. On the grounds of social equity the use of price as a method of exclusion should be avoided. Mechanisms that include regulation or control include:
Mechanisms that include community empowerment and self regulation include:
Kangaroo Island has potential to be used as a pilot study to determine the carrying capacity and population of the island. An overall management structure for the island could be developed to promote the integration of economic opportunities with environmental needs.
Kangaroo Island has some very important areas with high biodiversity value. These areas are prime destinations for nature based tourism and ecotourism. Tourism is being encouraged by the local community and the State government as an important island industry and tourist numbers are projected to increase substantially over the next ten years. Measures will need to be taken to monitor and control the impact of this visitation. An interesting issue exists with some divergence in the type of tourism the Islanders view as best for their community and that which appears to be developing. The community feels a need to regain some control over their future, this will be exaggerated as tourist numbers increase and the impact grows. Being an island offers a special opportunity to define objectives and exert tighter control than may be possible from a mainland region. This indicates Kangaroo Island as an interesting site for a pilot study that considers the carrying capacity, cultural objectives and limits to environmental use. An excellent opportunity exists for developing a management plan to promote the integration of economic opportunities within the boundaries of environmental limits.
This case study of the potential for incentives to promote conservation of biodiversity specifically addresses the potential for nature based and ecotourism (NBE) to act as an incentive for biodiversity conservation. The area considered is the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (WHA) and surrounding terrestrial region in North Queensland. The Wet Tropics WHA covers approximately 9000 square kilometres and runs in a discontinuous band from north of Townsville almost to Cooktown. Most of the remaining tropical rainforest of this region is included in the Wet Tropics WHA, along with areas of adjacent wet sclerophyll forest and other vegetation assemblages.188
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188 Wet Tropics Management Authority (1992) Wet Tropics plan: Strategic directions. Wet Tropics Management Authority Cairns.
NBE can be defined as visits which focus on nature appreciation, and the infrastructure (park facilities, tours, accommodation, roads etc) which support these visits. NBE can be potentially both of assistance to, and a threat to, biodiversity conservation. The activity can be a threat where visitation of a sensitive area in an uncontrolled manner, results in trampling of vegetation, disturbance of wildlife or extraction of flora or fauna, or involves extensive clearing and pollution. On the other hand, NBE can be carefully sited, utilise site hardening and visitor control, and be based on carefully designed accommodation and infrastructure that minimises clearing and employs practices to minimise impacts of people. There will inevitably be some environmental impacts associated with even well planned and managed NBE in natural areas. However, with care and appropriate limits, these can be managed to be consistent with biodiversity conservation.
NBE can be a positive force for biodiversity conservation on public reserves and private lands when it provides: an income-producing land use on private lands, funds for management of public lands, a rationale for placing extra land in conservation reserves, or a vehicle to increase the appreciation and support of biodiversity values amongst visitors and the local community. NBE also may provide a beneficial role by educating the community about nature and providing some motivation for attitudinal change.
Two questions arise when considering the potential for NBE to provide a means of financing biodiversity conservation. For private lands, the questions is 'Can NBE provide a superior financial return and substitute for other land uses, or does it provide just an additional pressure to clear land?' The ability for NBE to provide an alternative will vary across sites in the region with varying demand for NBE facilities and varying suitability of particular land parcels for different uses. In areas such as north of the Daintree River where the tourism volume is high, substitution of NBE for grazing and horticulture is occurring. For public lands, the question is 'Can NBE deliver the financial means to undertake management to neutralise the impacts of tourism on biodiversity, or even to fund more extensive works for biodiversity conservation?' In the Wet Tropics WHA to date, collected visitor fees have fallen short of the direct costs of management for tourism.
The greatest threat to biodiversity conservation in the Wet Tropics region is probably clearing of native vegetation on private land. Agriculture, urban development and tourism which is not nature-based (eg golf courses), all require clearing of native vegetation whereas, by definition all forms of NBE, including accommodation establishments, rely on retaining natural vegetation to the greatest extent possible. Where NBE can provide a viable return on private land and an alternative to other land uses, clearing may be minimised. One unresolved issue however is the extent to which NBE contributes to general pressures on the natural environment of the region from population and services supported by NBE (its 'footprint'). These effects are likely to be removed from the NBE activity itself and difficult to identify.
Surrounding the Wet Tropics WHA, much of the land has been cleared for agriculture and urban uses (including tourism infrastructure). The region includes the cities of Cairns and Townsville plus numerous smaller urban settlements. Some areas of native vegetation remain, and some of these are important in the context of conservation of biodiversity in the region. Much of the remaining native vegetation outside the Wet Tropics WHA is in private ownership and currently this remains under threat from clearing. Potential exists for areas of cleared land that link existing areas of natural vegetation to contribute to biodiversity conservation if revegetated.
The Wet Tropics WHA is of outstanding biodiversity status. The area was inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 1988 in recognition of its international significance. The area is one of about twelve WHAs to meet all four natural heritage criteria for inclusion on the World Heritage List. The Wet Tropics is the only location for over 500 species of plants and 30 species of animals (plus unknown numbers of invertebrates) that are regarded as rare, vulnerable or endangered.189
Clearing constitutes the greatest direct threat to ecosystem diversity in the Wet Tropics region. It has been estimated that 30% to 50% of the vegetation extant at the time of European settlement of North Queensland has been cleared. Extensive clearing on the coastal lowlands has left only 20% of original vegetation, much in fragmented remnants.190 The other significant area of clearing was the Atherton Tablelands and the remaining rainforest is in small isolated patches. The majority of rainforest in the Wet Tropics region is protected in the Wet Tropics WHA. Conservation of rare and threatened species cannot be guaranteed however simply by reservation of the Wet Tropics WHA, for a number of reasons:
Tourism is a major economic activity in the Wet Tropics region. In 1992, tourism contributed 25% of both Gross Regional Product and employment in the Far North Queensland region.191 This region, centred on Cairns, has seen significant growth in tourist numbers and infrastructure over the last decade. Projections to the year 2001 are for a doubling in visitor nights over the 1992 level.192
The Wet Tropics WHA is the location of 4.77 million visits to different sites for tourism and recreation per year.193 Around 50 companies offer regular tours, mainly day trips, to sites in the Wet Tropics WHA. People are also able to visit the Wet Tropics WHA as independent travellers by private car or hire car. This group of visitors includes local North Queensland people plus tourists visiting the region.
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189 Rainforest Conservation Society of Queensland (1994) The natural values of the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Area: A revision. Report to the Wet Tropics Management Authority, Cairns.
190 Winter, J.W.; Atherton, R.G.; Bell, F.C. and Pahl, L.I. (1991) 'Rainforest dynamics, disturbance and alienation in Northern Queensland.' In Werren, G. and Kershaw, P. (eds) The rainforest legacy: Australian national rainforests study, Vol.3. Australian Heritage Commission, Canberra.
191 Horwarth and Horwarth, (1993) 'Economics of Tourism.' In Context report: Cairns region tourism strategy. Office of the Coordinator General, Brisbane.
192 National Cent