Publications

Contents

• Foreword
• Abbreviations
• Summary
• 1. Introduction
  • 1.1 Description of species
  • 1.2 Distribution and migration
  • 1.3 Habitat
  • 1.4 Food
  • 1.5 Breeding and longevity
  • 1.6 Conservation status
  • 1.7 Conservation measures
  • 1.8 Strategy for recovery
• 3. Recovery Actions
  • 3.1 Recovery co-ordination
  • 3.2 Managing habitat and food
  • 3.3 Monitoring habitat and food
  • 3.4 Monitoring the population
  • 3.5 Captive breeding and release
  • 3.6 Public information and education
• Acknowledgements
• References

Foreword

With the co-operation and support of the community, private enterprise and all levels of government since 1978 efforts to save the Orange-bellied Parrot from extinction are being made by the governments of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and the Commonwealth, the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, the World Wide Fund for Nature (Australia) and many volunteers.

This is the third recovery plan for the species and contains actions recommended for the period 1998 - 2002. The earlier plans for the species throughout its range (Brown & Wilson 1984; Stephenson 1991), and a Victorian action plan (Edgar & Menkhorst 1993), have been

mented. The Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team guided the implementation of the two earlier plans. This plan was submitted to the Australian Nature Conservation Agency (ANCA) for approval and funding under the Endangered Species Program.

Recovery plans identify, cost and schedule actions needed to implement strategies for the recovery of endangered or vulnerable species, subspecies or ecological communities. Attaining objectives and providing funds is subject to budgetary and other constraints affecting the parties involved, as well as the need to address other priorities. Recovery plans do not necessarily represent the views nor the official positions of any individuals or agencies represented on the Recovery Team. Plans are approved by the responsible Ministers and wildlife conservation agencies of the three range states, South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. Approved plans are modified subject to new findings, changes in species' status and completion of recovery actions.

ABBREVIATIONS

SUMMARY

Current species status:

The Orange-bellied Parrot has a single breeding population containing less than 200 mature adults in the wild. When breeding the species occupies an area of approximately 1600 km² but during winter migration is otherwise dispersed widely along the coastline of south-eastern Australia. The species has declined markedly in abundance and range this century. Since 1991 the size of the wild population has not exceeded 200 mature birds. According to the IUCN Red List Categories of Threat (IUCN 1994) the species meets the criteria for critically endangered (CR, C2b). The species has a total population of less than 250 mature individuals (C), has steadily declined in abundance and its range has contracted markedly since the 1920s, with all individuals now being in a single subpopulation (2b). The Orange-bellied Parrot is protected by State and Commonwealth legislation and listed as threatened nationally, and throughout its range in South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania.

Habitat requirements and limiting factors: The species forages for the seeds of low vegetation in a variety of coastal plant communities and roosts in shrubland usually within 10 km of the coast of south-eastern Australia. It breeds only in south-west Tasmania and migrates to Victoria and South Australia to spend winter in saltmarsh and strandline habitats. Threats are loss of critical winter habitat and food supply from development or damage, competition from feral species for food, predation from foxes and cats, disease and possibly stochastic factors such as inbreeding depression. Limitations are shortage of mid-winter food supply and secure roosting sites, disease, small numbers and high mortality in winter. Breeding habitat is sufficient in size for the current population but requires an appropriate fire regime to maintain food diversity and availability.

Recovery objective: The objective of this plan is to improve the conservation status of the species so that it no longer meets the IUCN criteria for the Critically Endangered (CR) category (IUCN 1994) by 2001 and can be placed in a lower threat category; by increasing the number of mature individuals in the wild population to 250 birds, or more; increasing the carrying capacity of critical winter habitat and ensuring that the species persists in its present range, and demonstrating in 2001 that the probability of extinction of the species in the wild by 2011 will be below 50%. The long term objective of the recovery effort is to down list the species to Lower Risk - Conservation Dependent (LRcd) within 30 years.

Recovery criteria: All the following criteria must be met (relative to 1996 levels) by 2001;

• Increase the area, or carrying capacity, of critical winter habitat by 10%.
• Actively maintain the carrying capacity of breeding habitat through frequent burning.
• Increase the probability of mean winter survival, or cohort longevity of banded birds by 10%.
• Increase the maximum number of birds counted during the winter census by 100%.
• Release 20-30 captive bred birds into the wild during each plan year.
• Continuously update the model PVA to estimate the risk of extinction in the wild within 10 years.

Actions needed :

• Recovery co-ordination4.Monitoring the population
• Managing habitat and food5.Captive breeding and release
• Monitoring habitat and food6.Public information and education

Cost of recovery: (000's/year).

Total funds required (TC); EA Endangered Species Program (ESP); all other sources (O).

Biodiversity benefits: The species is highly mobile, utilising saltmarsh and coastal plant communities from the mouth of the Murray River to South Gippsland. This recovery process integrates well with the conservation and protection of significant areas of coastal ecosystems in south-eastern Australia that are highly modified and require sensitive management. Developmental research for a vaccine for a virus found in wild populations of most native Australian parrots (PCD) is supported by the recovery of this species.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Description of species

The Orange-bellied Parrot, Neophema chrysogaster (Latham 1790), is a small 'grass parrot' of coastal south-eastern Australia. It is one of six species of the genus Neophema (Family: Psittacidae) (Christidis and Boles 1994). Adults weigh 45-50g, have bright grass-green plumage above, royal-blue leading edges to the wings, light green to bright yellow feathering on the underside with a distinctive orange patch on the belly.

The orange patch is often not visible at rest and is brightest in males, paler in females and small or absent in juveniles. On the forehead, males have a broad blue frontal band which is less distinct in females and often absent in juveniles. The bill is dark grey in adults and yellowish in juveniles. When flushed they make a high-pitched metallic 'buzz' alarm call which is repeated rapidly up to ten times. The flight call is a high-pitched repeated 'tzeet... ' given every two or three seconds at the apex of the undulating flight. The species' appearance is more fully described in Higgins and Davies (in press).

The species breeds in coastal south-western Tasmania then migrates to the coasts of Victoria and South Australia for the winter (Brown and Wilson 1982) (Figure 1) Three related 'grass parrots' (Rock, Blue-winged and Elegant) also occur in these coastal areas and may be mistaken for this species. They are olive-green in colour and may have orange colour on their abdomens but none have the grass-green plumage, the distinctive alarm call and the bright orange patch of the Orange-bellied Parrot.

1.2 Distribution and migration

According to summaries of historical records (McGill 1960; Jarman 1965; Loyn and Kinhill Planners 1980; Brown and Wilson 1982, 1984) the Orange-bellied Parrot was formerly more abundant and widespread than it is now. It ranged from Yorke Peninsula in South Australia along the coast to Bruny Island in southern Tasmania, and to Sydney, New South Wales, where small numbers may have bred (McGill 1960).

During the late 1800s and in the 1920s the species was reported widely as being common, or locally abundant, in coastal south-eastern Australia. The range and abundance of the Orange-bellied Parrot has declined steadily since the 1920s and it is no longer found in New South Wales. It is rarely recorded from west of the Murray River in South Australia and has not been recorded east of Jack Smith Lake in South Gippsland, Victoria.

The species' current breeding range (Figure 1) is a narrow coastal strip of south-west Tasmania between Birchs Inlet, in Macquarie Harbour, and Louisa Bay on the southern coast. Most pairs breed within 20 km of Melaleuca Inlet, Bathurst Harbour, and Port Davey in what is considered as one breeding population.

Most adults depart the breeding range in February, leaving juveniles to follow in March and April. During migration individuals forage on beaches, coastal dunes, heathland, and pasture until reaching the saltmarshes of north-west Tasmania and King Island. The first birds arrive at Lavinia Nature Reserve, King Island, in mid-March and have usually left by June. Adults first reach Victoria in late March and disperse east as far as coastal South Gippsland and as far west as Lake Alexandrina in South Australia by April. Most of the population over-winters in saltmarsh habitat in central Victoria while the remainder moves west to the coast of South Australia. In September the first adults leave the Australian mainland for Tasmania with the last birds departed by November. Pre-breeding migration is more rapid and direct than post-breeding migration. Generally, older birds arrive at breeding grounds earlier than younger birds ie 4-6 year olds arrive at Melaleuca in the last week of September or the first week of October while first year birds arrive during early November (Holdsworth et al in prep).

In Victoria up to 70% of the entire population concentrates at three wintering sites around Port Phillip Bay and the Bellarine Peninsula. These are the Murtcaim Wildlife Area (particularly The Spit Nature Conservation Area), Lake Connewarre and Swan Bay, including Swan Island. In South Australia the site most regularly used is Carpenter Rocks, south-west of Mt Gambier (Brown and Wilson 1984, Hewish and Starks 1988, Starks et al. 1992), however, since 1991 fewer records of birds at this site have been reported.

1.3 Habitat

Saltmarshes, coastal dunes, pastures and shrublands, estuaries, islands, beaches and moorlands, usually within ten kilometres of the coast, make up the diverse habitats used by Orange-bellied Parrots.

In Victoria, the species mainly uses natural saltmarshes dominated by beaded glasswort (Sarcocornia quinqueflora ) and shrubby glasswort (Sclerostegia arbuscula), as well as associated grassy or weedy pastures. In South Australia, as on migration in western Victoria, they also use beaches, dune frontages and adjacent dune systems and sheltered areas along rocky foreshores where they feed on the seeds of strandline plants (eg sea rocket Cakile maritima). Critical winter habitat for the species is saltmarsh along the western shore of Port Phillip Bay at the Murtcaim Wildlife Area, Lake Connewarre and Swan Bay, including Swan Island. Other suitable habitat in Victoria is located at Jack Smith Lake, Corner Inlet, Western Port, French Island, Port Fairy, Nelson and Discovery Bay Coastal Park and in South Australia at Canunda National Park, Lake Bonney, Nora Creina, Robe, Butchers Gap, Blackford Drain, Woods Well, Magrath Flat and Lake Alexandrina, where birds tend to spend less time and occur in smaller flocks than in the key sites in Port Phillip Bay.

Breeding habitat is a mosaic of eucalypt forest, rainforest, and extensive moorland plains dominated by buttongrass (Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus) and intersected by wooded creeks, rivers and estuaries within the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (Brown and Wilson 1982, 1984; Stephenson 1991). During breeding, Orange-bellied Parrots feed on the seeds and fruits of a range of moorland plants (see Brown and Wilson 1984), nest in eucalypt hollows, and roost in copses of tea tree (Leptospermum spp.) and paper bark (Melaleuca spp.). At Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet the species favours small forest patches close to feeding areas for nesting , however, the species probably nests within extensive forest at Towterer Creek north of Port Davey (Holdsworth pers comm). The structure and dynamic nature of the fire dependent moorlands are an important feature of the breeding range habitat (Brown and Wilson 1982 & 1984).

1.4 Food

Orange-bellied Parrots eat seeds and fruits of grasses, chenopods, sedges and herbs by foraging on the ground or climbing on food plants. Diet varies according to season and habitat across the range (see Brown and Wilson 1984). The availability of food in the breeding range depends on maintaining, by fire management, a mosaic of moorlands of different ages (Brown and Wilson 1982, 1984). In the non-breeding range in Victoria there may be a shortage of seed in most years in the available saltmarsh during a critical mid-winter period and the parrots sometimes feed on weeds and introduced grasses in adjacent pastures and golf fairways (Loyn et al. 1986). In South Australia strandline plants are as important as saltmarsh and pasture plants for Orange-bellied Parrots (Gibbons 1984; Casperson 1995). Other species of parrots and introduced finches may compete with Orange-bellied Parrots for food in key saltmarsh and beach habitats in the wintering range (Brown and Wilson 1982 & 1984, Loyn et al. 1986; Hill 1995).

1.5 Breeding and Longevity

The ecology and life history of the Orange-bellied Parrot is well known (Brown and Wilson 1982, 1984; Loyn et al. 1986; Menkhorst et al. 1990; Starks et al. 1992; Brown et al. 1995). It is known that both sexes breed in their first year and are monogamous (Holdsworth pers comm). Maximum recorded longevity of a bird in the wild is 7 years and 2 months (still alive Feb 1998 Holdsworth pers comm) and for birds in captivity, 13 years (Lewitska 1980), however, the average life expectancy of birds in the wild is estimated to be less than 4 years (Holdsworth et al in prep). Reproductive productivity declines after 6 years in captivity (Brown pers comm).

Observations at Melaleuca suggest that pair bonding of older birds probably occurs within wintering grounds prior to pre-breeding migration, as some mating behaviour and nest site selection occurs soon after arrival in October, while first year birds are usually un-paired until late November (Holdsworth unpublished data 1997). Nesting hollows, mostly in live Eucalyptus nitida and E. ovata, are selected (often using previous season's nest site) and nest scrapes prepared by females during November. Broody females spend increasingly more time within the nest chamber from mid November. During this time males feed the females at or near the nest site where copulation occurs. One pure white egg (c.23mm x 19mm) is laid every second day during late November to early December. Clutches are 1-6 but average 4.5 per female (Holdsworth 1997). Incubation lasts for 21 days and is carried out only by the female (Lewitska 1980). The male feeds the female at or near the nest site. Eggs hatch every second day during late December and early January with females continuing to brood chicks for up to two weeks before assisting the male with feeding chicks. Fledging occurs by mid-February and juveniles form small flocks prior to migration in late March to April.

1.6 Conservation status

According to the IUCN Red List Categories of Threat (IUCN 1994) the species meets the criteria for critically endangered (CR, C2b). The Orange-bellied Parrot has a single breeding population containing less than 200 mature adults in the wild (C) , has steadily declined in abundance and its range has contracted markedly since the 1920s (2), with all individuals now being in a single sub-population (b).

The Orange-bellied Parrot is listed nationally on Schedule 1, Part 1 (endangered) of the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992, Schedule 1 in the Commonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). The species is also recognised as endangered on the Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA). It is listed as threatened under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 ; Schedule 1 (endangered) of the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 in Tasmania, and Schedule 7 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 in South Australia.

While the reasons for the population decline are not clear it is likely that fragmentation of wintering habitat over the last 100 years (eg Heathcote and Maroske 1996) has been a major contributing factor (Menkhorst et al. 1990; Edgar and Menkhorst 1993; Casperson 1995) and is probably limiting population recovery. Alteration and destruction of the species' saltmarsh feeding grounds has been due to industrial and urban development, agricultural practices and recreational activities. Trapping for aviculture, predation by introduced cats and foxes, competition for food by introduced finches also may have contributed to the decline (Brown and Wilson 1982) and be limiting population growth. Stochastic factors such as disease, loss of genetic variation, storms during migration and destruction of nest sites, eggs and chicks by fire, are important influences on the population's long term viability.

1.7 Conservation measures

• 1.7.1 Recovery history and social issues
• 1.7.2 Conservation and management of habitat
• 1.7.3 Counting the population during winter
• 1.7.4 Monitoring and banding the population in summer
• 1.7.5 Captive breeding, genetic diversity and release
• 1.7.6 Psittacine circoviral disease
• 1.7.7 Population viability analysis
• 1.7.8 Public information and education
• 1.7.9 Recovery Team and management groups

1.7.1 Recovery history and social issues

The first actions to conserve the Orange-bellied Parrot were taken in 1978 when ICI (Australia) Pty. Ltd. planned to construct a petrochemical plant near Murtcaim Wildlife Area in Victoria, one of the main over wintering refuges of the species. The company commissioned research into the use of the area by the Orange-bellied Parrot (Loyn and Chandler 1978; Carr and Kinhill Planners 1979; Lane et al. 1980) but economic considerations later resulted in the development being abandoned.

In 1979, the conservation agencies of Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and the Commonwealth, and representatives from ICI, WWF, BA and BI agreed to co-operate on research into the status and ecology of the species. In 1980, a study of the Orange-bellied Parrot throughout its range was initiated by the Tasmanian conservation agency with funds from WWF and assistance from volunteers, non-government organisations and governments (Brown and Wilson 1980, 1981,1982). Also, in 1980 landholders in the vicinity of Point Wilson formed the Murtcaim Wildlife Area Management Committee (MWAMC) to facilitate local planning and management of the species' habitat in Victoria (Menkhorst et al. 1990).

Breeding trials commenced using two related species (N. chrysostoma and N. petrophila) in 1981 in Hobart and the first Recovery Plan was written by Brown and Wilson (1984). Actions taken under the first plan are summarised below and reported by Menkhorst et al. (1990). The Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team, comprising representatives of the federal and three state conservation agencies and nature conservation organisations, formed in 1983. In 1985 the success of captive breeding trials led the team to support captive breeding of Orange-bellied Parrots in 1986.

Willingness to protect the species and its habitat has been demonstrated by effective community actions and co-operation throughout its range. For example, in western Port Phillip Bay proposals for an airfield suitable for Hercules aircraft on Swan Island and a marina proposal within Swan Bay were abandoned. Coastal development proposals at Queenscliffe were modified and alternatives were found to the extraction of shell-grit at Point Wilson and Point Lonsdale (Edgar and Menkhorst 1993) to avoid loss of habitat. Staff of the Queenscliff Golf Club, which is situated in the Swan Bay Marine Reserve, recently won a national environmental award for managing the course as habitat for the Orange-bellied Parrot (A.G.C.S.A .1996).

In 1990, a public observatory was constructed at Melaleuca by the PWS, with World Heritage Area funds provided by DASETT, to assist with summer population monitoring. The observatory incorporates an interpretative display on the recovery program and has become an important attraction to visitors to the area.

The second Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Plan (Stephenson 1991) was implemented from 1991 to 1996 with funds from ANCA under the Endangered Species Program. Progress on actions in this plan are reported (Edgar and Menkhorst 1993; Brown et al. 1995; Menkhorst 1996, Brown et al 1997) and have been summarised below.

The Victorian Working Group (VWG) was formed in 1990 to co-ordinate actions within that state. After a major fire at Coode Island in the Port of Melbourne in 1991 the Victorian Government commissioned an environmental effects statement for a proposal to build a new port and relocate a storage facility for hazardous chemicals firstly at West Point Wilson then subsequently at Point Lillias (Point Lillias Project Unit 1995).

An action statement for the Orange-bellied Parrot for the period 1993 -1998 was prepared by Victoria (Edgar and Menkhorst 1993) under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and a second captive breeding colony was established Healesville Sanctuary in 1994.

Point Wilson was nominated by the Federal Government in April 1994 as the site for the East Coast Armament Complex (ECAC), replacing the Royal Australian Navy Armament Depot Newington in Sydney. A Commonwealth Commission of Inquiry conducted in 1994/95 into the environmental impact of the complex paid particular attention to the Orange-bellied Parrot (eg Hill 1995). The Commission supported the project subject to some modifications and its recommendations form much of the current environmental work being done by the Department of Defence (DD) at the Point Wilson site (Anon 1996). The purchase and inclusion of the adjacent ICI land and Snake Island have augmented this work by further limiting disturbance to the Orange-bellied Parrot and its habitat at Point Wilson.

The Orange-bellied Parrot Captive Management Group (CMG) was formed in 1995 and the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 was enacted in Tasmania.

The statement of the environmental effects of the Point Lillias proposal concluded that construction at the 36 ha site which contains wetlands of significance to the Orange-bellied Parrot would disturb the birds unless remedial action was taken, particularly when combined with the added disturbance of the nearby construction of the ECAC at Point Wilson (Point Lillias Project Unit 1996). The Victorian Government proposed to add significant new areas of high quality habitat to local Ramsar sites and to improve management and habitat enhancement work for the Orange-bellied Parrot, however, due to economic reasons the development has since been abandoned.

In 1996, Australian Titanium Minerals Limited (ATM) applied to the Tasmanian Government to mine sand at King Island between Naracoopa and the Sea Elephant River adjacent to critical migratory habitat for the Orange-bellied Parrot in Lavinia Nature Reserve. ATM's consultant ecologist's report (Lane et al 1997) recognised the significance of this proposal on the species, and through negotiations between the company, PWS and the Commonwealth, a 1.5km Mining Exclusion Zone to protect parrot habitat has been included in a draft Development Proposal and Environmental Management Plan (Anon 1997).

Observations at Melaleuca indicate that the breeding population has remained stable over the past 10 years and that breeding productivity in this sub-population has been increased through supplementary feeding and the use of nest boxes (Holdsworth et al in prep).

1.7.2 Conservation and management of habitat

The majority of areas used regularly by the species are either reserved for nature conservation, or are the subject of co-operative conservation agreements between landholders. Five areas of winter habitat, Corner Inlet, Western Port Bay and western Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Lavinia Nature Reserve on King Island, Tasmania, and The Coorong in South Australia are currently listed under the Ramsar Convention as wetlands of international significance.

In South Australia, 10 of the 15 important areas of habitat for the Orange-bellied Parrot identified by Gibbons (l984) are protected through a combination of reservation, heritage agreements or planning regulations. Management plans have been prepared for the Canunda National Park (NPWS 1986), the Coorong National Park and Coorong Game Reserve (NPWS 1989), Beachport Conservation Park (Sutherland 1990) and Carpenters Rocks Site (Owers 1994).

The entire known breeding range of the Orange-bellied Parrot occurs within the South-west Wilderness World Heritage Area (WHA) and the South West Conservation Area and is subject to the WHA Management Plan (1992). The use of fire to regenerate food plants is an important consideration in the breeding habitat. Fire management prescriptions for Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet (Marsden-Smedley 1993, PWS 1997) and long term monitoring of food plant abundance at Birchs Inlet (Askey-Doran 1995) will guide future habitat management in the breeding range. The protection and management of habitat at the Sea Elephant River estuary in Lavinia Nature Reserve, King Island, is included in the aims of management for the reserve (PWS 1998).

Management and protection of winter habitat for the species near Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, in very complex social and ecological contexts, has been an important and difficult feature of the recovery process for this species. The reason for this is that remnant habitat for the species (possibly of sub-optimal quality) remain on land owned and managed by many different organisations and private landowners (Menkhorst et al 1990).

Since the ecology of the species at Murtcaim was studied by ICI ( 1.7.1) many detailed studies (eg Loyn et al. 1986; McMahon et al. 1994) to identify and understand how to manage (eg Carr et al. 1991) and improve the supply of food (eg Carr 1987; McMahon and Carr 1988) and the carrying capacity of the habitat (eg Lane et al. 1984; Hill 1995) have provided useful information about a very dynamic system. Winter ecology and survival, particularly in Victoria, where habitat and food availability for the Orange-bellied Parrot is critical (Loyn et al. 1986) probably limits the population size. Saltmarsh communities capable of providing food throughout the winter have been greatly reduced by grazing, construction of salt evaporation pans and shell-grit extraction (Carr and Kinhill Planners 1979; Loyn 1982; Yugovic 1984) but, as recognised by Loyn (1982) and Brown and Wilson (1984), there is great scope for making supplementary feeding areas for use in mid-winter.

The formation of the VWG has helped to focus the implementation of actions in Victoria and over 50% of the saltmarsh plant communities of Port Phillip Bay are now fenced to protect from stock grazing. The Spit Nature Reserve and the French Island State Park have been enlarged to include habitat for the Orange-bellied Parrot. Management plans containing important prescriptions for managing Orange-bellied Parrot habitat in reserves at Swan Bay (Edgar 1991), Jack Smith Lake and Lake Connewarre State Game Reserves (DCE 1991; DCNR 1993) have been prepared.

The recommendations of the Commonwealth Commission of Inquiry into the establishment of the ECAC will significantly improve the protection and management of habitat for the Orange-bellied Parrot at Point Wilson (Anon 1996). In 1996, the DD erected a predator-proof fence around the eastern and southern saltmarsh habitat at Point Wilson and construction was managed to minimise disturbance to avifauna. Sections of the fence also form the security perimeter for the facility. This fencing and the ongoing pest control are designed to minimise the predation of Orange-bellied Parrots, by foxes particular in relation potential 'prey switching' as a result of reduced rabbit numbers through the effects of rabbit calicivirus disease. Active management of habitat for birds at the former Altona saltworks by Melbourne Parks and Waterways (Lane and Tweedy 1994) also will affect the future use of habitat by Orange-bellied Parrots in this area.

Research directed to winter habitat resources is being conducted by tertiary institutions. A new method of remote sensing to identify saltmarsh communities suitable for Orange-bellied Parrots was developed by Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Race 1994a, 1994b) and is to be used in this plan (3.3.1). In 1993, a postgraduate study (D. McDonald) through the School of Botany, University of Melbourne, analysed the nutritional content of seeds from the main food plants in the diet of Orange-bellied Parrots. Another postgraduate study at the same institution (L. Lee) is currently describing the regenerative ecology of food plants and the feeding behaviour of Orange-bellied Parrots in saltmarsh at Murtcaim. The information gained through these studies are being used to enhance the effectiveness of the PVA (1.7.7; 3.1.2) which in turn will assist in making decisions on habitat restoration.

In each state the ongoing control of predators (eg red foxes, cats) and competitors (eg rabbits, European starlings) in Orange-bellied Parrot habitat are significant tasks being done by volunteers, local councils, the DD, MW and state conservation agencies. Research and management of introduced competitors for winter resources (eg green finch and gold finch) has also been proposed to improve the quality and quantity of critical winter habitat.

1.7.3 Counting the population during winter

Birds Australia has co-ordinated and conducted counts of winter populations of Orange-bellied Parrot throughout the recovery period (Menkhorst 1996). Over 100 volunteers regularly participate in the annual weekend count (late July). Birds Australia advertises the counts through regional bird organisations in the quarterly magazine Wingspan, co-ordinates volunteer assistance by employing a Threatened Bird Network Co-ordinator and produces the newsletter 'Volunteer' to inform people about Orange-bellied Parrot survey details and news. Details of these counts and volunteer assistance are published regularly by BA (Jessop and Reid 1986; Starks 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 & 1997, Starks et al. 1992). State conservation agencies provide staff and logistical support to assist volunteers. Although winter surveys are extensive, often covering most of the winter range, including all known wintering sites and many other areas of potential winter habitat, results have been variable and over recent years less than summer population estimates at Melaleuca. The reasons for this discrepancy is not known but probably indicates that the species is utilising abnormal habitat, is dispersing into smaller flocks or is moving beyond its normal range. Orange-bellied Parrots are occasionally observed feeding with flocks of Blue-winged Parrots and other seed eating birds, particularly in areas outside of western Port Phillip Bay (Starks et al. 1992, Klau & Langdon 1994, J.R, Starks pers. comm.). Resighting of banded birds during the winter counts have provided estimates of the average probability of the survival of individuals and shown that captive bred birds are capable of normal migration.

Initially, winter counts were used as an annual index of the wild population but, the consistently higher Melaleuca counts since 1992 have become more valuable as a population index. Winter surveys will be used primarily to locate banded birds, assess the annual use and condition of favoured feeding and roosting sites, locate new habitats, and encourage public involvement and awareness of the species. In 1996, the Recovery Team suggested that BIOCLIM habitat models or broader search areas in South Australia may help to locate more birds. From 1996, during the construction and operation of the ECAC site at Point Wilson by the DD, Orange-bellied Parrots will be counted monthly at the site. Counts will be co-ordinated with BA winter surveys and the results will be made available to the Recovery Team.

1.7.4 Monitoring and banding the population in summer

Monitoring of the breeding population of Orange-bellied Parrots at Melaleuca began in 1979, and is centred on the vegetable gardens of the King and Willson families which, together, have attracted Orange-bellied Parrots for 50 years. Since March 1988 the parrots have been provided with daily supplementary food (canary mix) at these sites to attract them for banding and study. Since 1988, 474 birds in the wild population have carried standard Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme metal bands, some indicating by colour the year of banding on one leg, and coloured plastic bands identifying individual birds on the other. Every year since 1991, a sample (33-35) nestlings and or fledglings have been banded in this manner.

A public observatory and supplementary food station was constructed near the airstrip at Melaleuca 1990 and has become an important site for population counts and behavioural studies. In addition, the observatory enables visitors to the area to view the species without disturbance and learn more about the Recovery Program. From October to March, volunteers spend selected 2 week periods recording the numbers of parrots visiting the feed station and record banded birds. This is used in mark-recapture models to estimate the effective population and breeding productivity at Melaleuca (Holdsworth et al in prep). These population estimates are used within PVA models (1.7.7) to assess recovery of the species. Most were banded as juveniles, wild and captive bred. Annual summaries of the banding effort and results are provided in reports to the Recovery Team.

Data collected at Melaleuca since 1991 have recently been analysed (Holdsworth et al in prep). The trend line of a Jolly-Seber model was fitted to the data to obtain the most likely indication of the trend over time and statistical analysis is consistent with the view that Melaleuca has at least maintained a stable population over the period. The low estimates in 91/92 are probably due to low usage of the feed table and inadequate data recording methods. There is some statistical evidence of population decline in 94/95 and a recovery in the 1996/97 season. The extent of this recovery may be validated when 1997/98 data is included in the analysis. Overall, the data indicate that the efforts of the Recovery Team have resulted in at the minimum a stable population. There is no statistical evidence to support the alternative scenario of a declining population.

In 1992 nest boxes were erected at Melaleuca to encourage breeding in accessible sites. Both wild and released captive bred Orange-bellied Parrots have used them (1.7.5). In 1997/98, of a total of 41 boxes at Melaleuca, 14 were occupied by parrots, producing 47 nestlings (Holdsworth pers comm). The occupancy rate of these nests and the fledging success of pairs that use them is high. The nestlings in nest boxes are banded prior to fledging therefore negating the need for mist-netting juveniles as was done in earlier years. In 1994 nest boxes were installed at Birchs Inlet (13) and Towterer Creek (11) to encourage local or released birds to use them for breeding. Only one box at Birchs Inlet has been used (by captive-bred birds released at the site) producing one fledgling in 1996/97.

1.7.5 Captive breeding, genetic diversity and release

In 1981, an aviary complex was built at Green Point, north of Hobart, for a trial breeding program using two related species, the Blue-winged Parrot (Neophema chrysostoma) and the Rock Parrot (Neophema petrophila). The success of these trials and the subsequent release of captive bred progeny of both species into the wild (Brown 1988; Brown et al. 1995) provided the confidence in the Recovery Team to commence Orange-bellied Parrot captive breeding in 1985.

During the first 5 years the results of captive breeding were promising but the survival of juveniles was poor (Menkhorst et al. 1990; Brown et al. 1995) due to the viral disease, Psittacine Circoviral Disease (PCD). In 1989 the captive breeding facility was relocated to a less exposed location at Taroona a suburb of Hobart, in an attempt to reduce the incidence of PCD. Breeding productivity and winter survival consistently improved thereafter (Brown et al. 1995). The Recovery Team also supported research on identifying PCD infected birds to enable them to be isolated from healthy birds and as a first step in developing a vaccine (1.7.6). Other deaths in captive birds have been caused by accidents, stress during courtship, renal failure and aspergillosis.

The presence of PCD in the captive population delayed the release of captive bred birds until 1991 when the disease was positively identified in wild Orange-bellied Parrots (Brown et al. 1995). Since then the captive population has produced 183 independent young up to 1997 and provided opportunities for research, eg PCD, DNA. Precautionary measures to maintain genetic diversity and avoid inbreeding depression in both the captive and wild populations have been taken.

By 1994 a second captive colony at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria was established using founder stock from the Hobart facility. This measure was taken as an insurance against catastrophic events, such as fire and disease, destroying the entire captive population. Adding captive breeding of the Orange-bellied Parrot to the aims of Healesville Sanctuary has provided access to captive management support systems available to threatened species in professional zoos.

The need to avoid inbreeding depression in the small Orange-bellied Parrot population, particularly the captive population, led to the development of methods to measure genetic diversity in individual birds. In 1992, the Department of Genetic and Human Variation at La Trobe University (Dr N. Murray and H. Allen) commenced work on developing a probe to identify genetic markers in DNA from the blood of Orange-bellied Parrots. The method detects specific alleles in the genotypes of individual birds from which estimates of genetic heterozygosity in the captive and wild populations can be made. From 1994 the methods have been refined (by J. Baril), identifying the alleles of many of the captive birds and some wild birds. A new technique using only Orange-bellied Parrot feathers is also being developed to avoid collection of blood. The information gained allows the CMG to avoid matings of closely related individuals and maintain the level of genetic heterozygosity in the captive bred population.

Since 1991, thirty-eight captive bred birds have been successfully introduced into the wild at Melaleuca where the original stock was captured and the breeding population is most easily observed. Each bird was banded with unique combination of coloured bands (1.7.4) and held in the release aviary for up to a month. This 'soft' release method is described in Brown et al (1995). Observations from the Melaleuca observatory clearly indicated that released birds remained in the area and most of them paired with other released birds, or wild birds, and many successfully raised young. By breeding so readily after release, progeny is rapidly added to the population, regardless of winter survival thus ensuring that the release program is at least partially effective. Captive bred birds tend to migrate later than wild bred adults and a small number of them are seen in Victoria during winter and/or in Tasmania in up to three successive breeding seasons (Brown et al. 1995) confirming that captive bred birds can migrate successfully and breed for years after their release. Some were not seen again, either in the wintering range, or at Melaleuca during the following year. To date no banded birds have been seen in South Australia.

In an effort to establish a second breeding population 15 birds were released at Birchs Inlet in 1994 and 13 in 1996. The location, where the species had bred until 1985, is approximately 120km north-west of Melaleuca. The release method was similar to that used at Melaleuca (Brown et al. 1995). One of the 1994 birds was seen during the winter at Point Lillias in 1995 (Starks 1997) and another was seen at Birchs Inlet in 1997. Only one pair of the 1996 release were known to have bred, producing one fledgling. One of 1996 released birds was resighted the following spring at the release site thus indicating the presence of another breeding area between Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet, and possibly a sub-population.

In addition, six birds were successfully released at Point Wilson Explosives Area during 1996 (P Menkhorst pers comm). The aim of this release was to determine whether the birds can survive at the site, migrate to Tasmania to breed and then return to the same (or another) wintering site. None of these have been sighted after release. To date a total of 72 captive bred birds have been released.

1.7.6 Psittacine circoviral disease

A significant cause of death among captive Orange-bellied Parrots during the breeding program in 1986 until 1991 was Psittacine Circoviral Disease (PCD) (Brown 1988). The disease was first positively diagnosed histologically in Orange-bellied Parrots by Dr David Pass of Murdoch University and shown to be caused by a virus (Wylie and Pass 1987). The virus multiplies in the liver (Raidal et al. 1993a), is shed in faeces and affects developing feather follicles, distorting the new feathers and causing them to be shed. The loss of plumage and thermal insulation causes birds to die of secondary infections such as pneumonia. The virus can be transmitted orally or cloacally in faeces or feathers and birds differ in their ability to produce antibodies to cope with the infection.

Since 1990, mortality due to PCD has been practically eliminated in captive bred stock through the relocation of Hobart facility to a warmer, more sheltered site. Assay methods and serum antibody to identify infected birds and to provide more informed care and better hygiene in captive management was undertaken by Department of Animal Health, University of Sydney, and assays for the virus and serum antibody developed (Raidal et al. 1993c). These studies established that wild and captive Orange-bellied Parrots were exposed to the virus and most captive bred birds survived infection and developed antibodies.

The pathogenesis of the virus is still poorly understood but it is probably the most recognisable disease of wild and captive psittacine birds and has been reported in more than 61 psittacine species (eg Raidal et al. 1993b; Raidal et al. 1993c) including other threatened psittacines (eg the Swift Parrot, Lathamus discolor, and the Norfolk Island Parrot, Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cookii. (G. Cross pers comm). PCD virus can affect psittacine birds of all ages, but generally affects juveniles or young adults. A vaccine for this disease would benefit psittacines in aviculture and any captive breeding programs for other threatened psittacines.

1.7.7 Population viability analysis

Population viability analysis (PVA) uses a computer model to synthesise information about the population dynamics of a species to produce estimates of the risk of extinction. The model is reliant on detailed biological information such as reproductive rates, re-sighting of birds in winter and summer habitat, population estimates and survival. The results of Orange-bellied Parrot PVA are used by the Recovery Team to guide the recovery strategy and refine actions.

The first PVA, prepared in 1990 (McCarthy et al in prep), showed that high juvenile mortality was the greatest limitation to population increase and emphasised the value of the captive breeding program. It predicted that the most effective use of the captive breeding program was to release from 40% to 60% of captive bred birds, annually. Captive breeding and the supply of artificial nests was important in reducing the risk of extinction but winter survival was critical. The management of winter food resources and the control of sources of mortality for over wintering birds was most important.

A PVA based on a stochastic simulation model (eg Burgman et al 1993) to estimate parameters for the wild population is currently being developed. Because there is still uncertainty in some of these parameters a serious estimate of the extinction risk of the population is not available, but survivorship is likely to be more limiting than reproduction, regardless of the uncertainties (M Drechsler pers comm). The PVA identifies that the quality of winter habitat is important to the species. The postgraduate work being undertaken at University of Melbourne (L Lee) on traditional winter habitat and its use by Orange-bellied Parrots at the Murtcaim Wildlife Area will further enhance the PVA model, and predictions may assist the order of priority for developing winter habitat areas.

1.7.8 Public information and education

Public awareness of the endangered status of the Orange-bellied Parrot and the efforts to save the species are high. The opportunity for visitors to land at the airstrip at Melaleuca and view Orange-bellied Parrots from the observatory is an asset to scenic flight operators in the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area. The continuing high level of enthusiastic participation in winter counts and the summer observer program are evidence of public support for the recovery effort.

Two coloured brochures have been published, one which assists in identifying Orange-bellied Parrots, and the other explaining the endangered status of the bird and the co-operative recovery effort. The latter, which has been very effective and widely distributed for public information, was updated in 1997. Members of the Recovery Team have publicised the recovery effort by writing articles, giving talks to local and national organisations, attending conferences, and encouraging television and radio coverage. Birds Australia has appointed a volunteer network co-ordinator to support the recovery of threatened bird species including the Orange-bellied Parrot. Education officers of the State conservation agencies publicise the plight of the species in a range of ways using note sheets, broadsheets, endangered species packages for schools and the internet (eg PWS http://www.delm.tas.gov.au/esl/). Interpretive signs have been provided for visitors at Carpenter Rocks and the Melaleuca observatory. In 1998 the interpretive material at Melaleuca was updated and now incorporates a video surveillance system allowing visitors and observers to view nest box activity. Posters and note cards, published privately, continue to be very popular. New tasks in this plan, including the production of a regular newsletter and the appointment of a co-ordinator will build further public interest in the recovery process.

1.7.9 Recovery team and management groups

Participation in working to benefit this species and its habitat is shared by people in the community who are volunteers, landowners, land managers and Friends of Parks Groups and many other organisations. Responsibility for implementing this plan is shared by many groups and individuals.

An Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team was first established in 1983 to guide, evaluate and review progress on implementing a Recovery Plan and was the first for the recovery of a threatened species in Australia. It has met annually since 1984 in one of the three range states on a rotational basis and provided the opportunity for local land managers, research workers, volunteers and observers to participate. The team includes representatives of the following organisations:

• Environment Australia
• Department of Defence
• Parks and Wildlife Service (Tasmania)
• Dept. of Environment and Natural Resources (South Australia)
• Dept. of Natural Resources and Environment (Flora and Fauna Branch and Port Phillip Area, Vic)
• La Trobe University (School of Genetics and Human Variation)
• Melbourne University (School of Botany)
• Birds Australia
• World Wide Fund for Nature (Australia)
• Healesville Sanctuary (Zoological Board of Victoria)
• Birdlife International (formerly ICBP, was a founding member but in 1995 it affiliated with, and is now represented on the Recovery Team, by BA.)

The Victorian Working Group (VWG) was established in 1990 to give added impetus to the recovery effort in Victoria (Stephenson 1991). It meets 3-4 times annually to ensure co-ordination and co-operation in implementing tasks locally and comprises local members of the Recovery Team, land managers, land owners, researchers and volunteers. The Captive Management Group was formed in 1995 to manage the captive population housed in the separate facilities at Hobart and Healesville and the release of captive bred birds from those facilities into the wild population. It comprises members of the Recovery Team and other specialist members who consult regularly. The Tasmanian Operations Group was formed in 1996 to co-ordinate Tasmanian tasks and, like the VWG, it is comprised of local members of the Recovery Team, regional land managers, researchers and volunteers and reports to the Recovery Team.

1.8 Strategy For Recovery

The results of actions implemented from previous Recovery Plans (Brown and Wilson 1984; Stephenson 1991) are referred to in section 1 and they lay the foundation for developing strategies in this plan and for long term recovery. Actions within this plan include some ongoing actions from the previous plan (Stephenson 1991) and some new actions. Organisational changes include recommending the appointment of a recovery coordinator and stronger action in public information and education. Strategies to improve the rate of increase in the size of the wild population of the Orange-bellied Parrot are listed below in order of priority.

• Creating additional winter feeding habitat in known locations traditionally used by the species (Tasks 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.7, 3.3.2) for approximately 100 birds.
• Reducing the risks of predation and competition for the birds by removing and excluding feral animals from traditional feeding sites and protecting and managing core habitat (Tasks 3.2.3, 3.2.4, 3.2.5, 3.2.6, 3.2.8, 3.2.9, 3.2.10, 3.2.11, 3.2.12, 3.2.13, 3.3.3, 3.3.4).
• Counting (Task 3.4.1) and locating the balance of the wild population in winter by searching in potential habitat beyond the known wintering range (Task 3.4.1) and, inside the known wintering range, by discovering new feeding areas of saltmarsh habitat with new survey methods (Task 3.3.1).
• Breeding healthy birds in captivity and successfully releasing them into the wild population and being able to locate them after release by radiotelemetry (Tasks 3.5.1, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.4).
• Developing a PCD vaccine to increase the fitness of captive and released birds (Task 3.5.6).

3 RECOVERY ACTIONS

These are tasks based on currently available knowledge and the experience gained from implementing the previous Recovery Plans (Brown and Wilson 1984; Stephenson 1991). Included for the first time in the recovery of this species is the proposal to employ a full-time (or equivalent) recovery co-ordinator. The priority, cost and responsibility for carrying out the tasks is shown in the Implementation Schedule (Section 4).

3.1 Recovery co-ordination

3.1.1 Recovery co-ordinator

A full-time (or equivalent) co-ordinator will be appointed to help implement all aspects of this plan, including liaison with appropriate government agencies, non-government organisations, 'Friends of' and Landcare groups and the public. The co-ordinator reports directly to the Recovery Team through its convenor. The co-ordinator will contribute to and integrate the outcomes of Orange-bellied Parrot management groups (1.7.9), produce the Orange-bellied Parrot Newsletter (3.6.3) and co-ordinate the submission of any grant applications and cooperative proposals to support the recovery process (3.2.1). The co-ordinator will have access to and copies of all information from implementing these actions during the recovery process, be able to advise the Recovery Team on their progress and will facilitate the analysis and curation of data and its publication. The co-ordinator will help to implement those tasks most directly associated with the core strategies of this plan (2.1) of highest priority in each range state; the participation of volunteers; research and the coordination of public education and media strategies. The position will integrate field tasks done by core staff in NRE, PWS, ENR and BA and will guide the research projects undertaken by other institutions.

Throughout the life of this plan it is suggested that the coordinator and staff of PWS, NRE and ENR co-operate to prepare and assist community groups with preparation of applications to grant programs such as Landcare, Save the Bush, Waterwatch and Coastcare to fund land management tasks not identified in this plan. Through liaison with the coordinator, the VWG or by other means the resources can be employed in improving, protecting and restoring coastal saltmarsh communities of highest priority at known or potential feeding sites for the Orange-bellied Parrot under this and other tasks (3.2.1, 3.2.7, 3.2.8, 3.2.9, 3.3.1)

The co-ordinator may be required to work in Tasmania and Victoria, alternately, for periods of approximately six months duration and will be required to travel for field work and attend recovery meetings in each of the range states. An annual salary plus overheads (28%) amounting to $51200, travel costs of $4500 pa and $3500 pa for office and computer rental will be required. Government agencies will meet the cost of attendance of their own representatives to Recovery Team meetings.

3.1.2 Population viability analysis

A PVA is required to help choose management and research options in applying the recovery strategy. This will enable better predictions of the changes in the risk of decline associated with the tasks. It is also a method of evaluating the assumptions underlying research and management tasks to be performed. The PVA model of the Orange-bellied Parrot population must be kept up to date by providing information from actions to the co-ordinator. To provide a prediction of the probability of extinction by 2011 under this plan some part-time programming assistance ($5000) will be needed in 2002.

3.2 Managing habitat and food

3.2.1 Create new winter habitats

By 2000 the VWG will identify from a range of locations in Victoria up to 10 sites where sufficient new winter habitat may be created with a sustainable food supply for at least 100 additional Orange-bellied Parrots (in addition to the 40 using the area in 1996). By promoting common goals and co-operation with existing landowners, sites not currently used by the species (eg disused lagoons at Western Treatment Complex) may be converted to provide secure and useful winter habitat. Previous habitat improvement has been limited to two methods, removing grazing stock and planting food crops. New approaches will be tested and planned at up to 3 sites, simultaneously. Sites will be chosen where support is available from landowners, volunteers and the local community (task 3.3.1 for community grants applications), and where winter resources (shelter, water and food) can be provided in a secure environment. Water, soil and plants will be manipulated to create a landscaped habitat with features attractive to Orange-bellied Parrots, such as islands, varied topography and access to freshwater as well as food. The sites will be selected and their conversion planned and created progressively at currently unused sites according to principles approved by the Recovery Team. Sites can be tested for suitability by using them to release captive bred birds and providing supplementary food. Volunteers will assist with counting the birds using them to assess their value as winter habitat for the species.

3.2.2 Re vegetation and propagation trials

To rehabilitate winter feeding habitat for Orange-bellied Parrots in Victoria, research on the propagation and cultivation of its food plants is required. Glasshouse trials on seeds, cuttings and tissue culture will be used to investigate propagation methods for plant species identified in task 3.3.2. Planting tube stock, direct seeding or natural regeneration will be used in cultivation trials. A research student project in plan year 2 trialing glasshouse germination methods is proposed to begin this task. Costs are for glasshouse expendables ($2000) and student travel ($1000).

3.2.3 Effects of grazing on food supply at Murtcaim and Pt Wilson

Current practice in managing saltmarsh feeding sites for Orange-bellied Parrots at Murtcaim and Point Wilson is to exclude grazing stock to increase the abundance and biomass of several key food plant species (Carr et al. 1991). However, the increased plant biomass produced has not been followed by an increase in use of the areas by Orange-bellied Parrots. Light grazing may actually increase food availability in some food plants. Research into floristic composition and seed production in plots of saltmarsh subjected to various regimes of grazing by sheep and/or rabbits and in un-grazed control plots is needed to resolve management options. The work will involve detailed floristic analyses prior to, and at intervals after different amounts of grazing on food plants. Monitoring of food selection by the sheep and rabbits will be included.

This work will be done as a research project over three years. A stipend of $20000 pa plus travel ($2000 pa) is needed. Fencing materials and sheep will be provided by NRE and NRE staff will provide project supervision.

3.2.4 Impact of finches on food availability at Murtcaim Wildlife Area

Brown and Wilson (1984) and Loyn et al. (1986) suggested that introduced seed-eating finches at Murtcaim Wildlife Area may reduce the availability of food for Orange-bellied Parrots. A study of the food and feeding behaviour of the House Sparrow, European Greenfinch and European Goldfinch at MWA is proposed to investigate the dietary overlap and foods of these species. Because they are not native species, crop and gut contents may be obtained to accurately measure the types and relative amounts of seed taken. Coupled with data on flock sizes this will allow food consumption rates to be estimated. Sample counts of seed availability will provide estimates of the seed crop available to the birds and hence of the proportion consumed by each species. It is also desirable to investigate food sources and breeding sites during the spring and summer, with the expectation that this will lead to management recommendations for controlling the populations of these three species in the general area should this be necessary. A 3 year university study to parallel task 3.3.2 will require a student stipend ($20000 pa) plus costs for travel (4000 km/pa at $ 0.50/km) at $2000 pa and equipment (hide, spotting scope, tripod) at $3000.

3.2.5 Monitor and control human disturbance at Murtcaim and Swan Island

The MWAMC presently controls access to the Murtcaim Wildlife Area to protect the many values of the area, including Orange-bellied Parrots, from being disturbed by people visiting the area. The cost of this security and monitoring will be met by Melbourne Water. At Swan Island permits are required before access for bird-watching purposes.

Permits are issued by NRE and enforced by DD. Public education and information about the species is discussed in tasks 3.6.1 and 3.6.5.

3.2.6 Predator and pest control at Murtcaim, Pt Wilson, L. Connewarre and Swan Bay

The control of introduced predators and rabbits is needed at Point Wilson, Murtcaim, Lake Connewarre, Swan Bay and Swan Island to increase the carrying capacity of habitat and the probability of survival of Orange-bellied Parrots wintering in these areas. Foxes are known to have killed Orange-bellied Parrots at Murtcaim, and are common at Lake Connewarre. Intensive fox control programs are required at these two sites, and feral cat control is required at Swan Island. Responsible cat ownership is encouraged in public education programs conducted by local government and NRE. The recommendations for pest control at Swan Island and Lake Connewarre are in management plans for these reserves and need to be kept under review.

The DD is implementing an Operational Environmental Management Plan for the ECAC facility at Point Wilson with the help of an environmental manager who is involved in the environmental aspects of the Construction Environmental Management Plan. An ECAC environmental code of practice as part of the conditions of employment at the site and representation on the MWAMC with neighbouring land managers are some of the initiatives planned to benefit the Orange-bellied Parrot recovery as recommended by the Commission of Inquiry.

3.2.7 Habitat protection and food supply at Carpenter Rocks

Orange-bellied Parrots have been recorded at Carpenter Rocks more often than at any other site in South Australia in recent times (Gibbons 1984). The nature of the habitat at this site is most recently described by Casperson (1995). Experimental manipulation of the strandline and sowing seeds has shown potential to augment supply of sea rocket, C. maritima, a food of the Orange-bellied Parrot. This work will be continued, as necessary, in years when the natural growth of C. maritima is minimal due to storms or other conditions. In future this action may make the site a suitable place for releasing captive bred birds.

Management and control of important Orange-bellied Parrot habitat is under the Carpenter Rocks Site Management Plan (Owers 1994) and will be maintained by cooperation with the Port MacDonnell Council and the community.

3.2.8 Maintain feral predator control at Kingston and other known feeding sites

Casperson (1995) describes the known feeding sites of Orange-bellied Parrots in South Australia. Trapping for feral cats was done by volunteers in May 1996 at the feeding and roosting sites used by the birds at Carpenter Rocks. A site at Kingston, because of its proximity to a rubbish dump, has a high feral cat population and therefore high risk to birds using the area. Feral cat monitoring and trapping has been, and will continue to be done by volunteers belonging to Friends of Parks Groups at this and in other reserves (eg The Tattler No 7, ENR) with the support of local government and ENR as required. Extensive fox baiting programs were conducted in autumn and spring in south-eastern South Australia during 1996 (T Owers pers comm) and will continue throughout the life of this plan. This will also help to protect birds at feeding and roosting sites and may also protect released captive bred birds in future.

3.2.9 Maintain policy on recreational vehicle access to known habitats and feeding areas

As a result of management policy on Coorong ocean beaches (eg ENR, The Tattler No7), known Orange-bellied Parrot feeding sites in South Australia are less accessible to, and less able to be disturbed by, recreational off-road vehicles. This Recovery Plan supports ENR and local government in continuing to cooperate on managing access to best protect the coastal values on the Coorong.

3.2.10 Maintain food supplies at breeding sites with appropriate moorland fire regime and manage migratory habitats in Tasmania

Appropriate fire regimes are essential for maintaining food plant requirements in breeding habitat at Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet. Planned patch burning undertaken by PWS will be done when the birds are absent between April and September every year. All habitat burning is designed to minimise any chance of escape and natural boundaries are used where possible. Feeding habitat at Birchs Inlet was burned in September 1995 and burns A to E should be attempted in 1999 and 2000 at Melaleuca (Marsden-Smedley 1993). In 1994 a botanical survey of feeding habitat at Birchs Inlet (Askey-Doran 1995) recommended the preparation of a long-term habitat monitoring strategy, or regular long-term monitoring (3.3.3). In the Melaleuca Valley small annual asset protection burns (25-50 hectares) may be required in addition to those recommended for habitat maintenance (Marsden-Smedley 1993). Burning regimes will be followed in accord with the Melaleuca - South-west Cape Fire Management Plan (1997) and will cost $6250 annually. Teams of 4-5 people will be required on site at each location for up to 3 days.

As part of WHA weed control programs the PWS will be undertaking eradication and monitoring of the invasive weed marram grass Aminophila arenaria, throughout coastal South-west Tasmania. This will protect important mid-migration feeding areas. In addition, PWS will undertake a review of land management practices on Crown Lands throughout the migratory range, with the view to ensuring that the species' habitat is protected and enhanced. This particularly relates to removal or restriction of grazing leases along the north-west coast and off-shore islands.

3.2.11 Control feral cats in migratory habitat on King Island

From 1992 to 1995 feral cats were trapped from autumn to winter around a feeding site for migrating Orange-bellied Parrots in the Lavinia Nature Reserve, King Island. With supplementary funding provided by the Feral Pests Program of EA a local contractor was employed to perform the work and the results were reported annually to the Recovery Team. Since the closure of the Naracoopa rubbish tip in 1995, cat numbers have reduced dramatically in the area and therefore only low level trapping is required to control and monitor numbers. Funding is sought to purchase, maintain and operate traps. Should a licence be granted, Australian Titanium Minerals Ltd. (ATM), as part of their proposal to mine mineral sands adjacent to Lavinia Nature Reserve, have undertaken to have a 'no cats on site' policy, secure all refuse and conduct cat trapping throughout the course of the mining operations. This in-kind support is estimated to be $5000 pa.

3.2.12 Provide and monitor nest boxes and band juveniles in the breeding range

Since 1992 wild Orange-bellied Parrots have successfully bred in artificial nests at Melaleuca and increased the productivity per pair. The design of the nests has been improved and they are now installed at Birchs Inlet and Towterer Creek. At Melaleuca, pairs using boxes produce 30 - 50 nestlings each year which are banded prior to fledging. Colour banding of juvenile Orange-bellied Parrots (1.7.4) is necessary to recognise individuals and cohorts in the wild population and enables monitoring of demographic trends. A nest box that will last for up to 4 years costs approximately $60. It is planned to install and service up to 100 nest boxes at Melaleuca and 30 nesting boxes at each of the other two locations during the next 5 years. Equipment and materials needed to maintain them (climbing gear, water proofing and tools) is $750pa. Travel (sometimes using 1 hr ($1200) of helicopter time) and allowances for PWS staff to install and revisit nests costs $2500 pa. Teams of 2-4 experienced volunteers assist this program.

3.2.13 Management of aircraft and other human activities at Melaleuca

Melaleuca is the central departure and arrival point each year for several thousand bushwalkers and day visitors to the South-west National Park, Wilderness World Heritage Area. Access is gained by boat, walking track or light aircraft. Over recent years, visitor numbers have increased steadily and use of the landing strip will significantly increase the frequency of aircraft traffic and numbers of people in the area. A study is required to quantify the tolerance levels of orange-bellied parrots to this increased activity at nest sites, feeding areas and roost sites. A comprehensive study of noise levels and direct disturbance will be undertaken to provide guidelines for future development and management of the area. This project will be carried out with close association with the Melaleuca Advisory Committee, PWS, WHA managers, tourism operators and aircraft companies. A consultant will investigate all sources of disturbance within the Melaleuca area and will quantify the tolerance and behaviour of birds to a variety of stimuli. The consultant will also provide guidelines on the effect of any planned extensions to the airstrip and limitations on development. PWS staff and volunteers will assist with data gathering and monitor the effectiveness of prescriptions over the life of the plan.

3.3 Monitoring habitat and food

3.3.1 Survey of saltmarsh in Orange-bellied Parrot wintering range

Surveys of saltmarsh from the mouth of the Murray River to the Gippsland Lakes using satellite TM imagery and airborne multi spectral imagery are needed to measure saltmarsh availability and quality. This method has been used to accurately classify and map saltmarsh plant communities at Point Wilson and Murtcaim (Race 1994a, 1994b). It is desirable to use this technique to survey all saltmarshes within the known mainland range of the Orange-bellied Parrot in 1998 and 1999. Analysis of satellite imagery will give a broad overview of the distribution and diversity of saltmarsh communities along the entire mainland coast from the mouth of the Murray River to the Gippsland Lakes. Airborne multi spectral imagery will then be used to investigate in more detail the distribution and extent of significant saltmarsh communities for the Orange-bellied Parrot. Accurate knowledge of the distribution, quality and area of winter habitat gained will allow planning for habitat management, identification of potential release sites, and assist in winter population counts and locating areas to search for wintering birds outside the currently known sites. Areas of potentially useful habitat will be surveyed using these techniques at least once every 10 years to assess their likely role in the recovery program should primary habitat be alienated or over-utilised. (Purchase of satellite images $15000; airborne scanner flights $3000; image processing $15000; graphics and consumables $2000; travel $2000)

3.3.2 Observe Orange-bellied Parrots using critical winter microhabitats

As part of a study of population limiting factors, an investigation of how the species uses the habitat at the important wintering sites (Murtcaim, Lake Connewarre, Swan Island and, possibly, Carpenter Rocks) is needed. The aim is to accurately quantify temporal variation in dietary preferences, feeding and drinking behaviour, roosting requirements, etc., and to investigate any behavioural differences between sex and age classes. A minimum of two winter-spring periods is required for data collection. Direct observation, where possible from a hide, will be the main activity. Radio-tracking may be used to locate birds for observation and to track them to roosting sites. (Student stipend $20000 pa for 3 years, equipment $3000 and travel $3000 pa for 2 years).

3.3.3 Model breeding habitat and assess the quality and quantity of food available

Botanical surveys are needed to monitor the long term effects of fire management in breeding habitat on food plant diversity, and other moorland values, at Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet (3.2.10). Vegetation quadrats set up at Birchs Inlet in 1994 will be resurveyed in 1999. PWS will hire a consultant botanist to measure qualitative and quantitative vegetation changes resulting from the patch burning program ($3000). Similar monitoring studies of the effects of fire on food plants will be undertaken in 2001 at Melaleuca ($4000) and long term habitat monitoring strategies will be prepared (Askey-Doran 1995).

To better define the potential carrying capacity of both occupied and unoccupied breeding habitat a CORTEX model of habitat will be prepared from data available to PWS (Askey-Doran (1995), TASFORHAB plots and other sources) and new data from habitat surveys and searches. High resolution data from Landsat imagery will be incorporated into the model to produce a map showing the quality and quantity of breeding habitat within the breeding range. A consultant will employed to prepare the habitat model and conduct some ground truthing surveys.

3.3.4 Habitat management and population monitoring at King Island

Non-resident PWS staff and volunteers are required to monitor the use of Orange-bellied Parrot habitat at Lavinia Nature Reserve and other sites on King Island. In addition to the control of feral cats on King Island (3.2.11), local PWS staff will undertake various tasks to protect habitat from disturbance and wildfire in accord with the management plan (PWS 1998). Should a licence be granted, Australian Titanium Minerals Ltd. (ATM), as part of their proposal to mine mineral sands adjacent to Lavinia Nature Reserve, have undertaken to form a 1.5km Mining Exclusion Zone (MEZ) from Orange-bellied Parrot feeding areas. The MEZ will incorporate all the known and potential roosting habitats, and will be further enhanced by a 1km mining restriction zone from the boundary of the MEZ while parrots are on the island (March - June). Funding from ATM will be sought to monitor mining operations and the impacts on parrots.

3.4 Monitoring the population

3.4.1 Census of the wild population in the wintering range

BA employs staff to co-ordinate the annual winter surveys and census the wild population with volunteer assistance. In 1996 the Recovery Team suggested that BIOCLIM or broader search areas in South Australia may help to locate more birds in winter (1.7.3). Surveys include an annual count of the winter population, monitoring of the main wintering habitats and searching for colour-banded birds, and additional wintering sites. They also provide information on the daily and seasonal use of habitats, identify potential threats and competition, and other general information about Orange-bellied Parrots and their winter habitat. On alternate years searches cost more because they focus on wintering areas in remote parts of South Australia, Tasmania and Victoria. The average annual costs for BA to employ a coordinator to lead the Orange-bellied Parrot winter survey are; salary and on-costs (29%) ($16500), office expenses ($4000), travel and field costs ($3500), report production ($650) and supervision ($1200). State conservation agencies provide vehicles and staff to participate and assist in the coordination of field work. Costs included are: for volunteers' travel, vehicle running costs and equipment (depreciation); staff allowances and vehicle running costs of state agencies (eg NRE).

3.4.2 Monitoring the breeding population

Since 1992 over 170 volunteers have assisted PWS with observations and daily records of Orange-bellied Parrots at Melaleuca between November and March. Volunteers are provided with a return flight from Hobart to Melaleuca, a food subsidy and accommodation. From the observation hide they record numbers of Orange-bellied Parrot adults, juveniles and individually colour banded birds. The information from banded wild or captive-bred birds is particularly valuable for PVA (3.4.3). The volunteers provide the daily food supplement for the birds, interpretation for visitors, and also monitor competition from starlings for nest sites, the presence of feral cats and human traffic levels and disturbance (3.2.13). Estimated volunteer time and expense are equivalent to $24000 pa. Seed supplement for Melaleuca birds is $500 pa. Volunteer transport (16 flights at $350 each) is $5,600 pa and food subsidy ($100 per person for 2 weeks) is $2,800 pa. Preparing and analysing the results of monitoring for use by the Recovery Team and for publication will cost $4000pa.

Surveys of the entire breeding range will be conducted in years one and five to determine population changes outside Melaleuca. This will involve up to 15 teams of two volunteers and/or PWS staff searching key areas throughout south-west Tasmania, over a 3 day period in December. Funding is required to charter planes, vessels and helicopters to access isolated areas ($10000 pa), and to provide basic safety equipment ($3000 pa). The cost in the first year may be substantially less, as it is planned to share transport costs with the WHA/Surf Riders Association beach clean up project.

3.5 Captive breeding and release

The Captive Management Group (CMG) manages the implementation of this action for the Recovery Team. The CMG was formed to enable the management of all captive birds in the program as one population after the two facilities at Hobart and Healesville began producing birds. The CMG liaises closely with field managers and researchers as required and reports annually to the Recovery Team. The captive breeding program is described in section 1.7.5.

3.5.1 Husbandry of captive population

Maintenance and management of the captive population is essential for research and trials and for the implementation of the plan. The CMG aims to maintain up to 40 pairs of Orange-bellied Parrots in the two facilities and to produce 30 individual birds annually for release. It will also undertake other tasks to increase the security of the captive population and to promote the survival of the species.

The CMG will experiment with cross-fostering and nest box and aviary designs that can improve the productivity of the captive bred stock in both aviary facilities. The breeding stock will be managed to maintain a balance between the reproductive and the genetic contributions of individuals to the captive population. Protocols for handling, quarantine, or screening of birds to be transferred between facilities and to, or from, the wild population will be developed by the CMG with advice on veterinary aspects and genetics. Veterinary supervision and post mortem services will be improved by the recruitment of specialists, and specialist aviculturists, to assist the CMG in the captive breeding program. Husbandry of the captive breeding stock will be integrated with all other tasks detailed in this action.

The CMG is responsible for maintaining standardised collection, storage and retrieval of data for breeding, health, genetics and other aspects of managing the captive population and to provide information for PVA. A studbook and species management plan for the captive population of Orange-bellied Parrot will be established and maintained by Healesville Sanctuary using existing ISIS computer software.

In 1998 the CMG will compile a husbandry manual for the maintenance of the Orange-bellied Parrot in captivity by pooling and recording the information and experience gained during the recovery ($500). Contingency plans containing possible strategies for terminating the captive population, or coping with the demise of the wild population will also be prepared before 2000.

The cost of this task includes the cost of food for the captive birds, staff time, veterinary supplies and materials for aviary maintenance at both the Healesville and the Hobart facilities.

3.5.2 Releasing captive bred birds into the wild

The release program will operate annually during the term of this plan. It is planned to release 20-30 captive bred birds in alternate locations each year. Attaching radio transmitters to the birds may be the best way of monitoring their survival and movements after a release. Radio telemetry will also be useful for other tasks in this plan. Radio telemetry trials were conducted in preparation for a winter release of Orange-bellied Parrots at Murtcaim in 1996 (Menkhorst 1997). Elegant parrots (N. elegans), an analogous species, in captivity at Healesville Sanctuary were used to successfully trial the attachment of radio transmitters.

The release program is described in section 1.7.5. Juveniles have been released in South-west Tasmania, at Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet during the breeding season (Brown et al. 1995). In the first winter release at Murtcaim a portable release aviary was used successfully to hold birds as described in Menkhorst (1997). Birds were acclimatised for up to 4 weeks in a release aviary and are monitored continuously. Release costs include the transport and erection of an aviary at a release site in Victoria or South Australia ($1500) and at an established release site in Tasmania ($1500). Birds will be released during winter on mainland Australia (May - July) and in Tasmania in October.

A release in Tasmania will require the continuous presence of experienced staff prior to and following release and then volunteers until birds depart. At sites such as Birchs Inlet where the species formerly bred some birds will be retained in the aviary to breed and then released when breeding has commenced in order to encourage them to remain in the release area. Release costs include regular travel by boat or aeroplane to the sites for 2 people for visits or staff changeovers ($4400), food and allowances for 2 people @ $100/week ($4000) and the cost of feeding ($1000) and radio-tracking equipment ($3000). Total annual cost of release in Tasmania will be $13900.

Releases at sites in Victoria and South Australia will also include radio tracking of birds from the ground using hand held radio antennae. Travel costs for specialist radio tracking staff manning the release sites are needed (vehicle running and allowances up to $1000/day) with additional costs if tracking from aircraft (hire of aircraft $220/hr) using an experienced air-radio tracker (at a cost of $100/hr) for up to one day is required. Total costs for tracking released birds at each site will be $7000 plus the cost of radio transmitters ($500 each), erection of the release aviary ($1500) and husbandry cost ($1000). The annual cost of these releases will be $13500 and involve some volunteer assistance. Future releases at other sites in each state are planned, but dependant on the success of captive breeding.

3.5.3 Define standards of health in captive and wild birds

The CMG recommends that blood be collected from some captive and wild birds for analysis of serum components. Profiles of normal values from healthy birds would then be available to compare with those of sick birds (eg Melrose et al. 1995). Such a reference would quickly provide diagnostic tool for husbanding both wild and captive birds and improve the efficiency of treating ailing birds.

3.5.4 Monitor genetic heterozygosity

Early concern for accumulating inbreeding depression in the captive population of Orange-bellied Parrots led to the identification and screening of alleles from the DNA in the blood of individuals. This work estimates the allelic heterozygosity in the captive population (1.7.5) and provides a basis for future pairing of individual adults to avoid inbreeding. A method using only feathers instead of blood is currently being developed.

The range of alleles found in the captive population was less than that of the wild population. To remedy this problem the CMG recommends monitoring and controlling allelic heterozygosity in the captive population by adding founders from the wild population (with different alleles). In 1996 the whole captive population was screened for allelic variation.

Samples are processed at the School of Genetics and Human Variation, La Trobe University. Updates on heterozygosity will be provided to the CMG. The annual cost of this service (@ $100/sample) is $3000.

3.5.5 Monitor and manage PCD in the captive population

At present captive bred Orange-bellied Parrots are tested for Psittacine circoviral disease (PCD) (1.7.7) prior to their release into the wild population so that only birds that have developed antibodies to the disease are released. Tests are done at the Department of Animal Health, University of Sydney ($1000pa). This cost may be unnecessary once a vaccine is developed.

A vaccine for PCD can be developed in 2 years by employing a research assistant at the Department of Animal Health University of Sydney (salary yr1 $38000, yr2 $39500 plus on-costs (30%) and operational costs). The operational costs include travel (3100km@59c/km, $1829); glassware, chemicals, gamma irradiation ($4300); 400 HA/HI tests @ $20 each ($8000); and virology materials including foetal calf serum, electron microscopy and PCR materials ($4100). Parrot food will be supplied by sponsors. The production of a vaccine could assist in conserving other species of parrots and benefit parrot aviculture, globally. The Recovery Team should help to identify private sponsors to develop a commercially available product.

3.6 Public information and education

Community education, awareness and the support of volunteers are important components of this Recovery Plan. The Orange-bellied Parrot has a high public profile and their survival is a prominent issue for industrial and urban developments near to key wintering habitats. Particularly in Victoria, but throughout its range, significant social and economic issues are associated with the conservation of the Orange-bellied Parrot, mostly related to public access to, and future development of, habitat adjacent to densely populated coastal settlements. Volunteers are needed to participate in tasks essential to the recovery of the Orange-bellied Parrot. Three methods will be used to inform and involve the general community and volunteers. Educational material will be prepared by the staff of BA, WWF, PWS, NRE and ENR to be incorporated into school kits. The Orange-bellied Parrot colour brochure, which was updated in 1996, will be circulated to all stakeholders and interest groups. A community and public awareness program will be used to report progress of this Recovery Plan via a variety of media eg news items, documentaries and publications. A 'Friends of the Orange-bellied Parrot' group will be supported as a focus for public participation in the recovery of the species.

3.6.1 Fact sheet on the Orange-bellied Parrot recovery process

This is the first of three community education tasks which will provide the community with up-to-date information on the recovery program. This will be produced by the Orange-bellied Parrot coordinator, in cooperation with WWF and scientific staff in the conservation agencies. It will be mailed from organisations within each state as an insert for members of existing groups (eg BA Threatened Bird Network Newsletter) and the Orange-bellied Parrot Newsletter (task 3.6.3). It will include a clip coupon for joining the Orange-bellied Parrot Friends group. The publication will be an A4 double sided, full colour 1 side, black or one colour on white on the other, with images and design assumed donated. Cost includes printing and postage for 30000 copies.

3.6.2 Portable interpretive displays on the Orange-bellied Parrot

Public display material is needed to complement the mailed material for public education. High public and community interest in the recovery of the Orange-bellied Parrot has demonstrated the need to construct portable Orange-bellied Parrot interpretive displays for use in zoos, libraries and schools in each range state and for use in special events (eg World Environment Day ) and to support the work of the Recovery Co-ordinator. The displays (1 in each state) will be made using funds available from WWF sponsorships.

3.6.3 Orange-bellied Parrot volunteer newsletter

A quarterly newsletter is necessary to support networking and longstanding volunteers and to maintain the interest of the general public in the recovery of the Orange-bellied Parrot. It will be written, designed and produced by the Orange-bellied Parrot coordinator, in cooperation with WWF and scientific staff in the conservation agencies and mailed to groups as well as members of the Orange-bellied Parrot Friends group. Costs for printing and postage of 2000 copies, 4 x A3 double-sided folded down to A4, 2 colours on white, or black and white.

3.6.4 Prepare a media strategy

The Orange-bellied Parrot attracts positive media interest. An integrated media strategy is needed to report publicly on progress with actions such as winter census, breeding, releases or other events and will be developed for each state. Events in one state will be passed on to other states for local adaptation. Scientists, or other 'on camera' persons, will be nominated in each state to do this and good images will be made available for use in each state. This task is to plan and co-ordinate and carries negligible costs.

3.6.5 Orange- bellied Parrot recovery support group

It is necessary to support and maintain an Orange-bellied Parrot group which could span the three range states. There is a growing interest in the community and regional newspapers in long term recovery action. Starting and servicing the group will require additional time from the WWF in the range states and the recovery co-ordinator. (Cost of WWF staff time split between the 3 range states).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The recovery process for the Orange-bellied Parrot is one of the longest for any Australian threatened species. The results of research and the implementation of Recovery Plans owe much to those organisations who volunteer their time and sponsorship to make the actions possible. Without them Recovery Plans could not work. The longstanding and ongoing commitments of the Australian people and governments to implementing the Recovery Plans and managing habitat co-operatively is the greatest asset in conserving this rare and attractive bird.

This Recovery Plan was written as a collaborative effort of the Recovery Team and through contributions by the staff of Environment Australia, Department of Defence, Department of Natural Resources and Environment (Victoria), Parks and Wildlife Service (Tasmania), Birds Australia, World Wide Fund for Nature, Healesville Sanctuary and research collaborators of the universities of Melbourne, Latrobe, Sydney and Tasmania.

Last but not least, we thank the hundreds of individual volunteers who have worked enthusiastically on recovery tasks, without which our knowledge of the species would be much the poorer.

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Citation: Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team (1998) Orange-bellied ParrotRecovery Plan 1998-2002. Parks and Wildlife Service, Hobart.

Copyright © The Director, Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Environment and Land Management GPO Box 44A Hobart Tasmania 7001

All or parts of this document may be reproduced for research or education but not for a commercial purpose without the written permission of The Director, Parks and Wildlife Service.

This draft is prepared as an application for funding to Environment Australia under the Natural Heritage Trust. The views expressed in it are those of the Recovery Team.