• Change text size
• Skip to content

Threatened species & ecological communities

Search:

• About us
• Contact us

• Home
  • Atmosphere
  • Biodiversity
  • Coasts and marine
  • Heritage
  • Housing supply and affordability
  • Human settlements
  • Land
  • Living sustainably
  • Parks Australia
  • Water
  • EPBC Act

• Biodiversity
  • Biodiversity conservation
    • Biodiversity Conservation Strategy
    • Conservation covenants
  • International activities
  • Legislation

• Threatened species and ecological communities
  • Nominations
  • Listing assessments
  • Threatened species
  • Threatened ecological communities
  • Key threatening processes
  • Recovery plans
  • Conservation advices
  • Threat abatement plans
  • Threatened Species Scientific Committee

• • Invasive species
    • Diseases, fungi and parasites
    • Feral animals
    • Insects and other invertebrates
    • Weeds
    • Links
    • Funded projects
  • Migratory species
    • List of migratory species
    • Migratory waterbirds
  • Science and research
    • Biodiversity hotspots
    • Bird and bat banding
    • National Environmental Research Program
  • Wildlife trade
    • Internationally endangered plants and animals (CITES)
    • Invitations to comment
    • Permits, fees and contacts
    • Travellers and online shoppers
    • Live plants and animals
    • Australian native plants and animals
    • Exotic (non-native) animals
    • Trade and the law
    • Trading into and out of Australia
    • Report illegal wildlife trade
    • Publications
  • Australia's Biological Resources
    • Access to Biological Resources in Commonwealth areas
    • Access to Biological Resources in States and Territories
    • More about accessing Biological Resources
    • Permits - Accessing Biological Resources in Commonwealth Areas
    • Model Access and Benefit-Sharing Agreements
    • Biodiscovery Forum 2011
    • Related websites
  • Australian Biological Resources Study
    • Bush Blitz
    • Databases and online resources
    • Eureka awards
    • Forms
    • Funding and Research
    • Other links
    • Publications
    • Site index
    • What’s new
    • Workshops and forums
  • Publications

Part B: Conservation Issues For Specific Species/Groups (continued)

2. Soft-plumaged Petrel, Blue Petrels and Fairy Prion (southern) - Conservation issues

• 2.1 General Introduction
• 2.2 Taxonomy
• 2.3 Distribution
• 2.4 Population Size and Trend
• 2.5 Breeding Biology, Ecology and Diet
• 2.6 Threats specific to the Soft-plumaged Petrel, Blue Petrel and Fairy prion (southern)
• 2.7 Issues and Recommendations
• 2.8 References
• Table 2.9a: Summary of biological information for Soft-plumaged Petrel and Blue Petrel
• Table 2.9b: Summary of biological information for Fairy Prion (southern)

Soft-plumaged Petrel	Pterodroma mollis
Conservation Status	Native Species
BirdLife International Status	Least Concern
EPBC Status	Vulnerable
Blue Petrel	Halobaena caerulea
Conservation Status	Native Species
BirdLife International Status	Least Concern
EPBC Status	Vulnerable
Fairy Prion (southern)	Pachyptila turtur subantarctica
Conservation Status	Native Species
BirdLife International Status	Least Concern
EPBC Status	Vulnerable

2.1 General Introduction

The Procellariidae are a cosmopolitan family of seabirds, the taxonomy of which is complicated and subject to frequent revisions. At present the family comprises about 70 species, all characterised by a compact build, long narrow wings and 'tubenoses'.

The Soft-plumaged Petrel is a medium sized petrel (32-37 cm, 279-312 g) (del Hoyo et al. 1992) that nests colonially over a wide range. The Blue Petrels is a single species within the genus Halobaena. It is a smaller petrel (26-32 cm, 170-230 g), that nests colonially on offshore islands. It superficially resembles prions in body colouration. Fairy prions, are a smaller species among the genus Pachyptila, (23-28 cm, 90-175g). This genus is the subject of diverse opinion regarding the number of full species (Marchant and Higgins 1990).

2.2 Taxonomy

The taxonomy of Soft-plumaged Petrels is complicated and the subspecific status of the Australian breeding birds has not yet been confirmed. Clancey et al. (1981) recognised two subspecies: P.m mollis from the Tristan da Cunha and P. dubia from the Prince Edward, Iles Crozet, Iles Kerguelen and the Antipodes Islands. Confusion persists as some distinguishing features used by Clancey et al. (1981) alter with wear (Marchant and Higgins 1990).

More recently Bretagnolle (1995) suggested three subspecies of P. mollis, with P.m.mollis on Marion Island, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen; P. m. dubia on Gough and Antipodes Islands, and a third subspecies, P. m. deceptornis, on Amsterdam Island (Garnett and Crowley 2000). In the absence of a full suite of morphological and molecular data, Bretagnolle (1995) suggested that the Tasmanian birds are probably closest to the Amsterdam Island birds, P. m. deceptornis.

There is much debate as to the number of full species within the genus Pachyptila, with three to six species, and up to 14 forms recognised. All are externally similar and found in the Southern Ocean. The taxonomic treatment of Fairy prions varies, Marchant and Higgins (1990) recognising two subspecies: turtur (nominate) and subantarctica. Others treat Fairy prions as monotypic, forming a superspecies with Fulmar prions (P. crassirostris). Cox (1980) treated Fairy prions as having a number of subspecies, normally attributed to P. crassirostris, the subspecific differences based mainly on bill morphology. Brothers (1984) attributed Fairy prions residing on Macquarie Island on the basis of measurements of adults, concluding that measurements separated them from the similar Fulmar prion.

Marchant and Higgins (1990) report that the breeding populations of Fairy prions fall into two discrete groups: a northern large-billed form, and a southern stout-billed form. The difficulty has arisen in differentiating the southern stout-billed form from Fulmar prions. The validity of the southern stout-billed form (subantarctica) has been questioned because of the initial descriptions being based on a young bird. For the purposes of this review, the Macquarie Island birds are referred to as Fairy prions (southern form: P. t. subantarctica). However, further work is required to confidently distinguish them from Fulmar prions (see also Woehler 1991).

Although distinctive, the Blue Petrel has a plumage pattern broadly similar to the Pachyptila prions, but diverges in some ecological traits (del Hoyo 1992). It is clearly identifiable at sea with the diagnostic white tip to tail.

2.3 Distribution

Soft-plumaged Petrels

A small colony of Soft-plumaged Petrels in Australian territory has been confirmed breeding on Maatsuyker Island (43° 39'S, 146° 16'E), a 186 ha island situated 13 km south of the Tasmanian mainland (Wiltshire and Hamilton in press). On sub Antarctic Macquarie Island (54 30'S, 158 57'E), a 12 800 ha island lying 1 500 km south of Tasmania, birds have yet to be confirmed as breeding although their presence on the island suggests that breeding may occur.

Elsewhere Soft-plumaged Petrels breed on islands over a range of 80° latitude in three oceans: South Atlantic (Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island); Indian Ocean (Iles Crozet, Prince Edward Islands, Marion Island, Amsterdam Island, Iles Kerguelen), and the New Zealand region of the Southern Ocean on Antipodes Island (Bretagnolle 1995). Birds disperse widely at sea, occurring over Antarctic, Subantarctic and subtropical waters (Marchant and Higgins 1990; Woehler et al. 1991).

Blue Petrels

Blue Petrels are circumpolar in the Southern Ocean, occurring particularly close to and south of the Antarctic Convergence. Breeding colonies occur on South Georgia, Prince Edward Island, Marion Island, Iles Crozet, Iles Kerguelen and islands in Southern Chile. In the Australian region breeding has been confirmed on Macquarie Island. Suggestions of a small breeding population on Heard Island (Downes et al. 1959) have yet to be substantiated.

At sea Blue Petrels range north to reach the southern coasts of Australia, New Zealand, South America and South Africa (Marchant and Higgins 1990; Woehler et al. 1991). Some birds remain in the vicinity of their breeding island throughout the year, as indicated by almost continuous visitation of burrows on Macquarie Island (Brothers 1984).

Fairy prions

Fairy prions are numerous and circumpolar in their distribution, ranging north to subtropical waters during non-breeding periods. Garnett and Crowley (2000) report that the nominate subspecies of Fairy prions occurs through most of their range, with subantarctica restricted to Antipodes, Big South Cape and Snares Is., and Macquarie Islands (Woehler et al. 1991).

2.4 Population Size and Trend

Soft-plumaged Petrels

On Maatsuyker Island, breeding by Soft-plumaged Petrels was suspected after a bird was spotlighted and caught during the 1990s (D. Pemberton pers. comm.). Subsequently, targeted searches resulted in the discovery of six nests in the 2001-2002 season, with a further five eggs confirmed the following season (Wiltshire and Hamilton in press). It is unknown whether these few birds represent a recent colonisiation, or the persistence of a small colony that has been difficult to detect due to the coexistence of large numbers of other burrowing petrel species.

On Macquarie Island, three Soft-plumaged Petrel carcasses were found in 1989, and a pair of courting birds observed at night (N. Brothers pers. comm. in Garnett and Crowley 2000). Since then additional carcasses have been retrieved (N. Brothers unpublished data), and targeted searches during 2002 and 2003 have identified extensive aerial activity (S. Robinson and M. Schulz pers. comm.). One bird was discovered in a burrow in 2002, and a further bird the following year. However, the presence of an egg has yet to be confirmed. The Australian breeding population cannot be confirmed as exceeding 50 mature adults.

Elsewhere, P. m. deceptornis also occurs on Amsterdam Island, although there is no estimate of population size. These birds are frequently taken by feral cats Felis catus (Roux and Martinez 1987), and are considered to be almost extinct (V. Bretagnolle in Garnett and Crowley 2000).

Globally, the populations of the other subspecies are considerably larger, the species numbering in the order of 60 000 individuals. Global population trends have not been quantified, although some authors have reported population decreases (del Hoyo et al. 1992; BirdLife International 2004). On Antipodes Island, the population has expanded, increasing in numbers from about 100 pairs in 1978 to several thousand pairs in 1995 (Taylor 2000). Globally the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

Blue Petrels

The persistence of Blue Petrels at their colonies on Macquarie Island year round results in their extreme vulnerability to predation by feral predators. Historically, Blue Petrels were reported to occupy lower coastal habitat, within the hunting range of rats (Rattus spp.) and wekas (Gallirallus australis scotti). These traits likely resulted in the extirpation of Blue Petrels from the mainland of Macquarie Island, but low numbers persisted on offshore stacks, coexisting with rats, but isolated from cats and wekas.

Surveys of Macquarie Island in the late 1970s confirmed six Blue Petrel colonies all located on discrete sea stacks (Brothers 1984). Estimating the number of breeding pairs of Blue Petrels is extremely problematic, due to the extent of breeding failures and the maze of interconnected burrows. Based upon burrow density, and likely traits of occupancy, Brothers (1984) estimated a total population of ca 500-600 pairs of Blue Petrels for Macquarie Island between 1975 and 1982.

In 1999, for the first time in 100 years, Blue Petrels were found to have re-established on the mainland of Macquarie Island, adjacent to a colony on an offshore stack. The new colony contained about 30 burrows, but examination revealed egg shell fragments, and partially eaten adult birds, evidence of rat predation (N. Brothers unpublished data). In 2000, the first fledgling was discovered. From 2000 to 2003, Blue Petrel breeding efforts appear to have increased on the island, as indicated by extensive vocalisation and burrow excavating but there are no accurate estimates of numbers (M. Schulz and S. Robinson pers. comm.). At this stage, the total Macquarie Island population of Blue Petrels in Macquarie Island is estimated to be 500-1000 breeding pairs.

Fairy prions

Fairy prions were first reported as a breeding species on Macquarie Island in 1979 with the discovery of birds on two rock stacks, with population estimates of 22 pairs, and 16-18 pairs on another (Brothers 1984). Although colonies were visited during winter, the inclusion of Fairy prions as a breeding species for Macquarie Island, is based on the discovery on a single egg in a crevice occupied solely by this species. A further colony was reported in 1993 by N. Brothers (unpublished data) on Bishop and Clerk Island, 37 km from Macquarie Island. More recently, Brothers (unpublished data) reported a record for Fairy prions breeding on Macquarie Island, with small numbers being observed in a cave at the islands northern most tip. However, breeding was not confirmed at that site until 2001 when a large chick was observed (G. Hedley unpublished data). Another likely breeding site was discovered in the same year, in a cave on the west coast. Twenty abandoned eggs were discovered, and attributed to Fairy/Fulmar prions (G. Hedey pers. comm.). The species identity of the birds recently reported as breeding on Macquarie Island remains to be confirmed.

Given the lack of confirmed numbers of prions breeding on Macquarie Island, it is impossible to determine either the trend or the status of the breeding population. The size of the entire population has been cited by Garnett and Crowley (2000) as 50-250 mature individuals, presumably based on the estimate of ca 40 pairs by Brothers (1984).

2.5 Breeding Biology, Ecology and Diet

Soft-plumaged Petrels

There have been no detailed studies of the biology and ecology of the Soft-plumaged Petrel across its range. Observations have been summarised by Marchant and Higgins (1990) and are supplemented here with observations from Maatsuyker Island (Wiltshire and Hamilton in press). The species breeds colonially on offshore islands, loosely associated with other petrels in some locations, including Maatsuyker Island. Birds are thought to return to their colonies in August-September, although birds have been observed at Macquarie Island in July (M. Schulz pers comm). On Maatsuyker Island, determination of their presence is simplified by searching prior to the arrival of the more numerous conspecific Short tailed shearwaters (Puffinus tenuirostris) return. Eggs are reported to be laid from November to December, with most eggs laid on Maatsuyker Island after mid-December. Fledging occurs during April and May.

Breeding success for the species is poorly known. For two seasons on Maatsuyker Island, four of six nests (67%) contained late stage chicks in 2002, and three of five nests (60%) in 2003.

Soft-plumaged Petrels are typically present in southern-eastern Australian waters between September and April, but appear absent during the winter months (Reid et al. 2002). This species obtains their food via surface-seizing, their prey comprising mainly cephalopods, with some fish and crustaceans.

Blue Petrels

The breeding ecology of Blue Petrels is not well known. General information from extralimital sites has been summarised by Marchant and Higgins (1990). A single egg is laid is in rock crevices, or burrows dug out among rocks or vegetation. On the sea stacks off Macquarie Island most burrows were situated between 10 and 14 m above sea level (Brothers 1984). Laying occurs in late October, and eggs are incubated for ca. 6-7 weeks. The nestling period also extends for 6-7 weeks, chicks fledging in late January-early February. At Iles Kerguelen and South Georgia, after the chicks fledge the adults depart, returning to their burrows between late April and late June, after which

they are absent again until September.

Observations from Macquarie Island indicate that birds are present and attend burrows almost all year (Brothers 1984). Breeding success data are limited, but the available information suggests that productivity is typically low as a result of predation. At Macquarie Island, probably very few chicks fledge, being heavily predated by both rats and skuas (Rounsevell and Brothers 1984).

Blue Petrels obtain the prey by surface seizing and diving. Their diet comprises a range of species of pelagic crustaceans, fish and cephalopods, the relative importance of each group varying with locality (Marchant and Higgins 1990).

Fairy Prions

The ecology of Fairy prions has been well summarised by Marchant and Higgins (1990). The breeding season broadly extends from September to March. Laying occurs from October through to December, depending on locality, the season being earlier in the northern colonies. The single egg is laid in a crevice, or burrow, and incubated for 44-55 days. The fledgling period is similar (43-56 days) and both parents share in feeding the chick.

Breeding success of Fairy Prions in New Zealand has been reported as between 74 and 79% (Harper 1976). There are no published breeding success data from Australian colonies. On Macquarie Island, only one single chick has been observed in December 2001, although the survival of this chick to fledgling, as well as the specific identity (Fulmar or Fairy prion) was not resolved (G. Hedley pers. comm.). Marchant and Higgins (1990) summarised the timing of the presence of Fairy prions at the colonies, with young fledging and adults departing in February/March and adults returning to colonies in August/September. In Tasmania however, the birds attend the colonies in Bass Strait throughout the winter months (R. Gales pers. comm.), and on Macquarie Island, Brothers (1984) records adults as being present in May, with birds also observed in June and July (M. Schulz pers. comm.).

The diet of the prions on Macquarie Island is unknown. It is likely be similar to the diet reported elsewhere: small crustaceans (especially euphausiids), with smaller amounts of fish (Marchant and Higgins 1992). Prey is typically obtained by surface seizing and dipping.

2.6 Threats specific to the Soft-plumaged Petrel, Blue Petrel and Fairy prion (southern)

The breeding populations of Soft-plumaged petrels, Blue petrels and Fairy prions (southern) in Australia are all considered threatened because their populations are both small and restricted in distribution. As a result, the birds could be adversely affected by effects of climate changes on sea temperature and food supply (Garnett and Crowley 2000) in addition to other holistic threats that affect small and vulnerable species of seabirds (see Part A).

The most significant and immediate threat to these birds is that posed by predation from introduced pests, especially cats. On Marion Island, Williams (1978) estimated that cats killed 38 000 Soft-plumaged Petrels out of a population of ca 400 000 birds. Cats have also been implicated in the demise of petrels and prions on Iles Kerguelen, Iles Crozet and Macquarie Island (Pascal 1980, Jouventin et al. 1984, Brothers 1984). In New Zealand, Fairy prions currently are restricted in distribution to those islands free of introduced predators (Taylor 2000). The northern subspecies of Soft-plumaged Petrels (P.m. deceptornis) also occurs on Amsterdam Island, where it is frequently taken by cats, and is now almost extirpated there (V. Bretagnolle in Garnett and Crowley 2000).

Feral cats were recorded on Macquarie Island in 1820 after being introduced by sealers. Jones (1977) and Brothers et al. (1985) estimated that about 60,000 birds were killed each year by feral cats, with the winter breeding species being most seriously impacted. Fairy prions and Blue Petrels are year round residents on Macquarie Island (Brothers 1984), and elsewhere Soft-plumaged Petrels are known to be absent from the colony for only two months of the year (Serventy et al. 1971). In New Zealand high numbers of Fairy prions were killed by cats on Mangere Island, but quickly recovered once cats were removed from the island (Taylor 2000). On Macquarie Island, feral cats, weka and black rats extirpated populations of Fairy prions from the mainland, relegating, until recently, the birds to offshore island stacks (Brothers 1984).

Wekas (were also introduced to Macquarie Island in the mid 1800s, and significantly impacted on burrow-nesting petrels (Blackburn 1968). In the 1980s wekas were largely confined to tussock slopes coinciding with the former habitat of Blue Petrels and fairy prions (Brothers 1984). As the number of wekas and cats increased, the small burrow-nesting petrels were presumably eliminated, with the winter residents being most vulnerable to destruction.

A targeted eradication of wekas from Macquarie Island was successful, with the last recorded individual being observed in 1988 (Copson 1995). A cat eradication program was implemented in 1985, with the last cat being observed on the island in 2000. Since the eradication of wekas and cats, the recovery of burrowing petrels on Macquarie Island has been remarkable. Since 2000, Grey Petrels (Procellaria cinerea) and Blue Petrels have re-established in several colonies.

Black rats and rabbits have replaced cats and wekas as being significant in impacting the survival of small and medium sized petrels on Macquarie Island. Even on the rock stacks predation of Blue Petrels by subantarctic skuas Catharacta lonnbergi and rats to the extent that few pairs, if any, are thought to breed successfully (Rounsevell and Brothers 1984). In 2002-2003 rats continue to be implicated in the deaths of Fairy prions and Blue Petrels on Macquarie Island (M.Schulz and J. Lynn unpublished data).

Skuas are significant predators of Blue Petrels on Macquarie Island, with Blue Petrels comprising 70% of all petrel remains located at skua breeding sites in 2003 (G. Copson unpublished data; M. Schulz and J. Lynn unpublished data). The population of skuas on Macquarie Island are thought to be artificially inflated due to high rabbit numbers (Skira 1984), recent observations indicating that numbers of both rabbits and skuas continuing to rise (Bradshaw 2004), with the latter having a small wintering population present (M. Schulz pers. comm.).

As a result of increasing rabbit numbers, partly linked to the eradication of cats from the island, the vegetation on Macquarie Island has undergone extensive changes, following the impact of grazing. This habitat alteration has likely increased the exposure of the petrels to predation by skuas, in addition to impacting on the stability and thermal properties of burrow structure. The consequences of these impacts have serious implications for the long-term survival of burrowing petrel species on Macquarie Island.

Reduction in rabbit numbers must be combined with parallel efforts to eradicate rats from Macquarie Island in order to effectively secure the survival of burrow nesting species. Reducing rabbit numbers alone would allow the recovery of native Tall Tussock (Poa foliosa) grassland, and with it the spread of rats (Copson and Whinam 2001). The inadvertent increase in rat numbers, a species whose habitat is associated with Tall Tussock, would take an increasing toll on the susceptible burrowing petrels, particularly those present on the island in winter.

Feral House mice (Mus musculus) were first recorded on Macquarie Island in the 1890s (Cumpston 1968). Mice are distributed across the island from sea level to the higher peaks in all vegetation communities, with a preference for tall tussock grassland associations (Copson and Whinham 2001). The impact of this feral species on the breeding success of burrowing petrels, particularly of smaller species, is not known on Macquarie Island (Brothers 1984) and poorly documented elsewhere (Taylor 2000). There are records of House mice taking the eggs of smaller burrowing petrels (Johnstone 1985, Taylor 2000). This feral species may also be a vector for disease (Taylor 2000), in addition to impact the invertebrate fauna and effect the nutrient cycles of the island (G. Copson pers comm.)

Remarkably, Maatsuyker Island has remained free of feral pests, despite being inhabited as a lighthouse station since 1891. Should predators ever become established on the island, the survival of the small and vulnerable Soft-plumaged Petrel colony may well be irrevocably threatened.

Bird strikes are also occasionally reported on Macquarie Island. There are confirmed reports of Blue Petrels found dead under radio and high-frequency (HF) dipole aerials of some field huts (DPIWE unpublished data). Low numbers of other threatened species, including Fairy prions, have also been found dead under these wires. In 2003, some aerials were replaced by whip aerials, and the incidence of bird strike has been greatly reduced (M. Schulz pers. comm.).

2.7 Issues and Recommendations

• On Macquarie Island, the integrated eradication of feral pests - rabbits and rodents - must be given highest priority to assist effective conservation of all burrowing petrel species on the island.
• Strict quarantine procedures for access to Maatsuyker Island should be introduced to minimise the risk of introducing feral pests to the island. Quarantine procedures for Macquarie Island must be continued
• Targeted long term monitoring for all three species should be implemented in order to track the trends in their population numbers, breeding effort and productivity, including the response to eradication of feral pests. Such monitoring must be conducted so as to minimise any researcher impact.
• The taxonomic status of the Fairy prions on Macquarie Island should be clarified. The subspecies are currently distinguished on the basis of bill characters and plumage. A global review of the group, incorporating molecular markers, would assist in clarification.
• The rock stacks adjacent to Macquarie Island should be surveyed to assess population size of the species present.
• Where possible long radio and HF dipole aerials should be replaced by whip aerials to reduce the incidental mortality caused by bird strike.
• The taxonomic status of the Soft-plumaged Petrels breeding on Maatsuyker Island (and Macquarie Island, should breeding be confirmed) should be established,
• All colonies to be protected and managed in such a way that human disturbance is minimised.
• Identify any emerging threats that will have impact on either species and develop an appropriate response.

2.8 References

Baker, G.B., Gales, R., Hamilton, S. and Wilkinson, V. (2002) Albatrosses and petrels in Australia: a review of their conservation and management. Emu 102: 71-97.

BirdLife International. (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004. CD-ROM. Cambridge, U.K: BirdLife International.

Blackburn, A. (1968) The birdlife of Codfish Island. Notornis 15: 51-65.

Bradshaw, C. (2004) Rabbit Scourge Strips Macquarie Island Bare. Australian Science May 2004: 23-26.

Bretagnolle, V. (1995) Systematics of the Soft-plumaged Petrel Pterodroma mollis (Procellariidae): new insight from the study of vocalizations. Ibis 137, 207-218.

Brothers, N.P. (1984) Breeding, Distribution and Status of Burrow-Nesting Petrels at Macquarie Island. Australia Wildlife Research 11: 113-131.

Brothers, N.P., Skira, I.J., and Copson, G.R. (1985) Biology of the feral cat, Felis catus (L.) on Macquarie Island. Australian Wildlife Research 12: 425-436.

Clancey, P.A., Brooke, R.K. and Sinclair, J-C. (1981) Variation in the current nominate subspecies of Pterodroma mollis (Gould) (Aves, Procellariiformes). Durban Mus. Novitates 12, 203-213.

Copson, G. R. (1995. An integrated vertebrate pest strategy for subantarctic Macquarie Island. In: Proceedings of the 10th Vertebrate Control Pest Conference, Hobart May 1995.

Copson, G.R. and J. Whinam (2001) Review of ecological restoration programme on subantarctic Macquarie Island: Pest management progress and future directions. Ecological Management and Restoration 2: 129-138.

Cox, J. B. (1980) Some remarks on the breeding distribution and taxonomy of the prions (Procellariidea: Pachyptila). Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 18: 91-121.

Cumpston, J. S. (1968) Macquarie Island. Publication No. 93, Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition Reports, Series A (1), Antarctic Division, Department of External Affairs, Melbourne.

Downes, M.C., Ealey, E.H.M., Gwynn, A.M., and P. S. Young (1959) The birds of Heard Island. Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions Scientific Reports - Series B. Zoology 1, 124-128.

Garnett, S.T. & Crowley, G.M. (2000) The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Environment Australia: Canberra.

Harper, P C. (1976) Breeding biology of the fairy prion (Pachyptile turtor) at the Poor Knights Islands, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 3: 351-371.

Del Hoyo, J., Elliot, A. and Sargatel, J. (1992) Handbook of Birds of the World Vol 1. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

Johnstone, G. W. (1985) Threats to birds on sub-antarctic islands. International Council for Bird Preservation Technical Publication 33, 101-121.

Jones , E. (1977) Ecology of the feral cat, Felis catus (L.)(Carnivora, Felidae) on Macquarie Island. Australian Wildlife Research. 4: 249-62.

Jouventin, P., Mougin, J.-L., Stahl, J.-C., and Weimerskirch, H. (1985) Comparative biology of the burrowing petrels of the Crozet Islands. Notornis 32: 157-220.

Marchant, S. and Higgins, P.J. (eds). (1990) The Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 1. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.

Pascal, M. (1980) Structure et dynamique de la population de chats harets de I'archipel des Kerguelen. Mammalia 44: 161-182.

Reid, T.A., Hindell, M. A., Eades, D. W., and Newman, M. (2002) Seabird Atlas of South-eastern Australian waters. Birds Australia, Melbourne

Rounsevell, D.E. and Brothers, N. P. (1984) The status of seabirds on Macquarie Island. In: Status and conservation of the world's seabirds. Vol. 2 (Eds J.P. Croxall, P.G.H. Evans and R. W. Schreiber). Pp. 587-592. International Council for Bird Preservation Technical Publication 2, Cambridge.

Roux, J. -P. and Martinez, J. (1987) Birds of Amsterdam and St. Paul Islands. Cormorant 14: 3-19.

Serventy, D.L., Serventy, V., and Warham, J. (1971) The Handbook of Australian Seabirds. A.H. and A. W. Reed: Sydney.

Skira, I. (1984) Breeding distribution of the Brown Skua on Macquarie Island. Emu 84: 248-249.

Taylor, G.A. (2000) Action Plan for Seabird Conservation in New Zealand. Part B: Non-threatened Seabirds. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.

Wiltshire, A. and Hamilton, S. (In press) First record of Soft-plumaged Petrels, Pterodroma mollis, breeding in Australia. Emu.

Woehler, E.J. 1991. Morphology of prions Pachyptila and diving petrels Pelecanoides at Heard Island. Marine Ornithology 19, 19-30

Woehler, E.J., Hodges, C.L. & Watts, D.J. 1990. An atlas of the pelagic distribution and abundance of seabirds in the southern Indian Ocean 1981 to 1990. ANARE Research Notes 77, 406pp.