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Publications
Griffith University and the Department of the Environment, Sport & Territories, 1997
ISBN 0 868 57655 7
This workshop focuses on the basic concepts of air pollution management and addresses topics such as sources of air pollution, global and local effects of air pollution and avoidance and control strategies. Avoidance and control strategies in use overseas and in Australia are evaluated. The Environment Protection Agency's (EPA) role in modifying practices leading to air pollution is compared with the actions of individuals.
During this workshop participants will be able to:
Air pollution is defined and concepts of primary and secondary sources introduced.
A group activity brainstorms and classifies sources of air pollution.
Activities using data on main pollutants, the contribution of motor vehicles, and the differences between American and Australian cities to provide practical evidence of pollution.
A mini-lecture followed by a group activity that classifies and assesses long term effects of air pollution, and develops sketch-diagrams of main effects.
A mini-lecture with group interaction that reviews current measures and the responses of government, the EPA and individuals.
Participants evaluate the consequences of air pollution solution scenarios, taking into consideration certain unusual or unpredictable events.
A report back session considers the question: What stops government, industry and individuals from positive action?
Participants consider the appropriateness of using an environmental audit on the school premises to consider the use and abuse of electricity, as a classroom activity.
Overhead Transparency Masters
OHT 1: Stationary Sources of Air Pollution
OHT 2: Air Pollution from the Burning of Fossil Fuels
OHT 3: Emission of Primary Pollutants
OHT 4: Mobile Combustion Sources of Air Pollution
OHT 5: Effects of Air Pollution
OHT 6: Air Pollution Control Equipment
OHT 7: Measures Recommended for Reducing Global Emissions
Resource 1: Introducing Air Pollution
Resource 2: Air Pollution Emissions in Australian Capital Cities
Resource 3: Major Air Pollutants for Selected Cities In USA -1991
Resource 4: Summary Air Pollution Analysis
Resource 5: Primary Pollutants and Their Effects
Resource 6: Secondary Pollutants and Their Effects
Resource 7: Air Pollution Control
Resource 8: Measures Used to Reduce Traffic Congestion
Resource 9: EPA's Role in Addressing Air Pollution
Resource 10: Scenario Cards
Resource 11: Wildcards
Resource 12: Enviro-audit of Activity in Schools
Bridgman, H.A. (1990) Global Air Pollution: Problems for the 1990s, Bellhaven Press, London.
Bridgman, H. A., Warner, R. and Dodson, J. (1995) Urban Biophysical Environments, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Ch. 3.
Elsom, D. (1992) Atmospheric Pollution: A Global Problem, 2nd ed., Blackwell, London.
Briefly introduce air pollution using Resource 1 and OHT 1, and include concepts of primary and secondary sources.
Ask participants to brainstorm suggestions of examples and sources of air pollution and record these on a whiteboard.
Participants then classify these sources as primary and secondary. Check their classifications with OHTs 2, 3 and 4.
Distribute copies of Resource 2 to pairs of participants. Ask them to develop answers to the following:
Display OHT (copy of Resource 3) and distribute copies of Resource 3 to pairs of participants. Explain that ppm means 'parts per million' and is similar to percent. Challenge participants to state which quantity is smaller, 1 ppm or 1 percent. Ask them to compute how much smaller 1 ppm is than 1 percent. Point out that since there are 10,000 hundreds in a million, 1 ppm must be 10,000 times smaller than 1 percent.
Point out to the participants that the standards are very different from each other. Ozone's permissible level, for instance, is 75 times lower than that of carbon monoxide. Ask participants to speculate why the standards may be different for different substances.
Explain that the human health tolerances are different for each pollutant and each pollutant may cause different health effects. The regulations account for these differences. Ask them to develop answers to the four questions listed in Resource 3.
Conduct a discussion on the differences between pollution levels in US and Australian cities.
Present a mini-lecture using Resources 5 and 6 and OHT 5.
Distribute copies of Resources 4 and 5 and, working in small groups, ask participants to classify the major sources of pollution into stationary or mobile, and potential effects in the short and long term.
Distribute copies of Resource 6 and ask groups to draw cause and effect diagrams to show smog, the ozone depletion, greenhouse effect and acid rain. Display and discuss these.
Present a mini-lecture using Resources 7 and 8 and OHT 6 and 7. Provide short information 'bursts' interspersed with group interaction to review and discuss existing and suggested control measures. Discuss the role of the EPA in implementing change using Resource 9.
Distribute copies of Resource 10. Working in small groups, ask participants to discuss a scenario, considering the problem, the solution and its long-term effects on pollution and people. Every few minutes, interrupt the discussions by reading out a wildcard (chosen at random - Resource 11). Ask groups to review their answers in the light of this 'event'. Selected groups can report back to all participants.
Conduct a discussion focusing on this question: What prevents government, industry and individuals from implementing air pollution controls?
Answers could include expense, fear of political backlash, inertia, lack of technology, lack of capital for research, social controls, (e.g. prestige, convenience), widespread control by major companies/multi-nationals.
Distribute copies of Resource 12. Ask participants to consider the appropriateness of using the activity in their own classrooms. Could it be used? How could it be adapted for use?
| Source | Major Pollutants |
| Coal Power Industrial |
SO2, NO2, NH3, CO, CO2, HC, particulates |
| Petroleum Refining Gasoline Kerosene Distillate |
SO2, NO2, NH3, HC, CO, CO2, HC, |
| Smelter (Cu, Pb, Zn) | SO2, aerosols, particulates |
| Incineration | NO2, NH3, CO, HC, CO2, particulates |
| Open fires (burning of forests, buildings and solid waste) | CO, CO2, HC, organic acid, particulates |
Gas Burning Sources
Oil-fired Furnaces
Solid Fuels
Sources of hydrocarbon emissions
Sources of sulphur oxide emissions
Sources of nitrogen oxide
Sources of CO2 (released into the atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels)
Sources of particulate emissions
This includes automobiles, trucks, buses, rail road locomotives, aircraft and marine vessels.
The sources of pollution in automobiles are:
Air pollutants entering air control equipment may undergo one or more of the following:
Control of air pollution from stationary sources
Control of air pollution from mobile sources
| Country | Stabilisation | Reduction |
| Australia |
|
20% by 2005a
|
| Austria |
|
20% by 2005
|
| Canada |
by 2005
|
|
| Denmark |
|
20% by 2000
|
| France |
by 2005
|
20% by 2025
|
| Germany |
|
25% by 2005
|
| Japan |
by 2000a
|
|
| The Netherlands |
|
3% to 5% by 2000
|
| New Zealand |
|
20% by 2000
|
| Norway |
by 2000
|
|
| Sweden |
by 2000
|
|
| United Kingdom |
by 2005
|
|
a All greenhouse gases.
Air pollution may be defined as a process or event which adds to, or subtracts from, the usual constituents of air and, alters its physical or chemical properties. Pollutants are usually considered to be those substances which, in excessive concentrations produce a measurable effect on humans or other animals, vegetation or materials such as stone or steel structures. Excess heat or noise can also be considered forms of air pollution.
There are two general groups of pollutants:
(a) primary: emitted directly from identifiable sources.
(b) secondary: those produced in the air by interaction among two or more primary pollutants.
Primary Pollutants
It is relatively easy to estimate the kinds and amounts of primary pollutants emitted from each source in a community. Primary pollutants found in our environment include:
Secondary Pollutants
When two or more primary pollutants combine in the atmosphere, a variety of secondary pollutants are formed. The degree of their impact depends upon relative concentrations, humidity, temperature and solar radiation. Some of these pollutants are ozone, organic hydroperoxides, peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN), several aldehydes and a variety of free radicals
Source: Australian Environment Council, 1988.
| Source | Syd | Melb | Bris | Adel | Perth | Hobart | Darwin | Canb |
| Mobile (a) |
23.65
|
16.75
|
8.26
|
7.25
|
10.45
|
1.44
|
0.74
|
1.40
|
| Waste combustion |
11.89
|
8.33
|
3.73
|
3.18
|
3.14
|
1.81
|
0.81
|
3.49
|
| Fuel combustion |
41.02
|
60.02
|
10.93
|
31.73
|
20.07
|
8.94
|
0.05
|
8.54
|
| Petroleum/solvent |
0.17
|
0.65
|
0.21
|
0.12
|
0.48
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
| Miscellaneous |
18.35
|
14.10
|
0.89
|
8.60
|
10.45
|
2.69
|
7.14
|
4.68
|
| Total |
95.08
|
99.85
|
24.02
|
50.88
|
44.59
|
14.88
|
8.74
|
18.11
|
(a) This category includes emissions from mobile sources other than motor vehicles, such as aircraft, railways, marine craft and others.
| Source | Syd | Melb | Bris | Adel | Perth | Hobart | Darwin | Canb |
| Motor vehicles |
2.91
|
1.25
|
0.75
|
0.49
|
1.08
|
0.10
|
0.12
|
0.17
|
| Other mobile |
0.88
|
0.30
|
0.23
|
0.18
|
0.21
|
0.12
|
0.07
|
0.02
|
| Waste combustion |
0.24
|
0.03
|
0.01
|
0.01
|
0.02
|
neg.
|
neg.
|
neg.
|
| Fuel combustion |
4.13
|
2.51
|
15.92
|
1.61
|
2.88
|
3.05
|
12.47
|
0.05
|
| Petroleum/solvent |
8.22
|
3.11
|
2.59
|
1.67
|
12.80
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
| Miscellaneous |
0.04
|
0.02
|
1.44
|
8.42
|
3.02
|
neg.
|
neg.
|
0.24
|
| Total |
16.42
|
7.22
|
20.94
|
12.38
|
20.01
|
3.27
|
12.66
|
0.48
|
| Source | Syd | Melb | Bris | Adel | Perth | Hobart | Darwin | Canb |
| Motor vehicles |
59.42
|
52.21
|
24.71
|
19.83
|
23.40
|
3.91
|
1.66
|
4.06
|
| Other mobile |
3.67
|
3.16
|
1.69
|
1.36
|
1.90
|
0.42
|
0.23
|
0.21
|
| Waste combustion |
0.32
|
0.06
|
0.03
|
0.02
|
0.04
|
0.02
|
0.01
|
0.07
|
| Fuel combustion |
6.43
|
10.61
|
15.31
|
10.01
|
5.85
|
0.32
|
1.18
|
0.28
|
| Petroleum/solvent |
2.89
|
1.55
|
1.56
|
1.39
|
1.79
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
| Miscellaneous |
1.98
|
0.79
|
2.15
|
1.75
|
2.02
|
0.07
|
0.32
|
0.15
|
| Total |
74.71
|
68.38
|
45.45
|
34.36
|
35.00
|
4.74
|
3.40
|
4.77
|
| City | Pollutant | Carbon monoxide* | Ozone** | Sulphur Dioxide*** | Nitrogen Oxide*** |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
National Standards
|
9 ppm
|
0.12 ppm
|
0.030 ppm
|
0.053 ppm
|
|
| Atlanta |
7
|
0.13
|
0.008
|
0.025
|
|
| Boston |
4
|
0.13
|
0.012
|
0.035
|
|
| Chicago |
6
|
0.13
|
0.019
|
0.032
|
|
| Detroit |
8
|
0.13
|
0.012
|
0.022
|
|
| Houston |
7
|
0.20
|
0.07
|
0.028
|
|
| Indianapolis |
6
|
0.11
|
0.012
|
0.018
|
|
| Los Angeles |
16
|
0.31
|
0.005
|
0.055
|
|
| New Orleans |
4
|
0.11
|
0.005
|
0.019
|
|
| New York City |
10
|
0.18
|
0.018
|
0.047
|
|
| Pittsburgh |
6
|
0.12
|
0.024
|
0.031
|
|
| San Francisco |
8
|
0.07
|
0.002
|
0.031
|
|
| St Louis |
7
|
0.12
|
0.016
|
0.026
|
* Second highest 8-hour average
**Second highest 1-hour average
***Yearly average
For example, New York's 10 ppm is (10 - 9) 9 = 1/9 = 0.111 = 11% over the National Standard.
(data - permissible limit) (permissible limit) = ? x 100 = % over limit
| Pollutant | Major Sources of Pollution | Potential Effects on People | ||
| Stationary | Mobile | Short Term | Long Term | |
| Nitrogen oxides | ||||
| Sulphur oxides | ||||
| Lead | ||||
| Hydrocarbons | ||||
| Particulate matter | ||||
| Carbon monoxide | ||||
| Carbon dioxide | ||||
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is formed during the incomplete combustion of carbon and its compounds. It is emitted mainly from the fossil fuel combustion sources and the automobile is by far the largest single pollution emission source. Carbon monoxide is also produced from the natural sources such as photochemical oxidation of methane, volcanoes, natural gas, forest fires, bacterial actions, etc.
Carbon monoxide itself is a fuel; hence if formed in stationary burners, it should be burned in the furnace. Carbon monoxide from large industrial sources is rarely an air pollution problem because if a plant emits significant quantities of carbon monoxide, the resulting loss in efficiency would be unacceptable to the owner. Carbon monoxide is more likely to be an air pollution problem from automobile sources in a community.
Carbon monoxide is considered a dangerous gas at high concentrations because it combines strongly with the haemoglobin of the blood and reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen to cell tissues. Deaths have been caused by carbon monoxide in coal mines, fires and closed places. At lower concentrations, it has been responsible for cases of heart attacks.
Sulphur Oxides
Most of the fossil fuels have some sulphur concentration in different forms; and burning produces sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide released with exhaust gases. After many hours in the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide is also converted into sulphur trioxide. Sulphur trioxide readily forms sulphuric acid mist with atmospheric moisture. This mist is responsible for poor visibility in air and is a major component of acid rain. High concentrations of sulphur dioxide may cause acute irritation effects to the upper respiratory tract and eyes. Sulphuric acid mist may cause more irritation (three to four fold) and have lower respiratory effects.
Sulphur dioxide emissions may be controlled by either removing sulphur from coal and oil, using low sulphur coal and oil, or by removing sulphur dioxides at the combustion source using limestone injection.
The Oxides of Nitrogen
There are only two oxides of nitrogen that may be important from an air pollution point of view and they are: nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). They are produced in nature by biological action and by combustion processes. As a pollutant, nitric oxide is formed largely by fuel combustion in both stationary and mobile sources. Nitric oxide is oxidised rapidly by atmospheric ozone and photochemical processes.
Nitrogen dioxide produces nose and eye irritation. With increasing concentration and time of exposure, it may cause bronchiolitis, pneumonia and even death.
Suspended Particulate Matters
Many human activities such as industrial processes, transportation, urban development and agricultural emit particles to the atmosphere. Some of these particles are small in size and remain suspended in the atmosphere for a long period. These suspended particles may be directly emitted into the atmosphere or may result from chemical reactions between pollutant gases. Suspended particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter are small enough to be inhaled by humans and may lead to respiratory illness if the concentrations are too high. Particulates larger than 10 microns consist mainly of dust, coarse dirt and fly ash from industrial and erosive processes. The large particulates usually settle out rapidly. The life of particulates in the troposphere (about 11 to 30 km above the surface of the Earth) last only a few days. If they are, however, injected into the stratosphere (above troposphere), they may travel around the world for several years. This may have a severe impact on the global climate.
Lead
Lead is easily vaporised during melting and thus considered as an industrial hazard. It is estimated that most lead emitted by human activities to the atmosphere is in soluble form. Lead smelters in some industrial locations may cause severe local problems. In the urban environment lead is mainly emitted from the exhausts of motor vehicles. The combustion of gasoline containing lead as an anti-knock additive is the principal source of lead pollution in the urban environment of Australia. The concentration of lead falls off rapidly with distance from roads and motor vehicles. Most of the lead aerosol is easily removed by gravity, acid rain.
Lead is a cumulative toxic material. Higher than normal blood lead levels in humans are a concern. It has been accepted that lead emission from motor vehicles is a significant contributor to above normal lead levels in the blood. It has been reported that high lead blood levels in small children is responsible for causing brain damage. To overcome this problem, unleaded petrol has been introduced in Australia. Lead in petrol is also responsible for malfunctioning of catalytic converters. Using unleaded petrol in vehicles will improve the efficiency of filters and reduce the photochemical smog problem.
Agriculturally Generated Air Pollution
Open air burning of grain and grass fields after crop harvesting is a widespread practice in agricultural regions world-wide. Emissions from open field burning include pollutants such as particulate matter, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons. Their impacts include reduced visibility, odour and health problems.
Ozone Depletion
The ozone in the stratosphere (about 11 to 30km above the surface of the Earth) protects the Earth from ultraviolet radiation produced by the sun. Without the ozone layer, life on our planet could end. This ozone is formed by interactions of oxygen molecules and energy from the sun.
Scientists observed that each spring ozone above Antarctica disappears. In the spring of 1987, at an altitude of about 16km, more than half of the ozone above Antarctica was destroyed. Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs were found to be responsible. CFCs are produced by industrial activities and were widely used as the propellants in aerosol spray cans. CFCs are still used in refrigeration and air conditioning plants, foamed plastic cartons and in the computer chip manufacturing industry.
Ozone depletion means that more ultraviolet radiation from the sun will reach the ground, causing an increase in the incidence of certain forms of skin cancer and possibly damaging crops and animals. In 1987 the first global treaty was signed by 27 nations in Montreal to reduce the release of CFCs by 50% by the end of the twentieth century.
Greenhouse Effect
There is a natural greenhouse effect which makes the Earth a suitable home for life. The blanket of air around the globe not only traps heat that would otherwise escape out into space, it also distributes the heat more evenly. Water vapour and carbon dioxide are the two most important naturally occurring greenhouse gases. There are sound reasons to believe that the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration due to the burning of fossil fuel may lead to an overall warming of the Earth's surface temperature. Other gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect are methane, CFCs and nitrous oxide. There is strong evidence that the natural changes in greenhouse gas concentration in the past altered the climate of the Earth.
Scientists suggest that the melting of Antarctic ice due to global warming within the next hundred years could be ultimately catastrophic. The resultant rise in the global sea level of five to six metres could cause extensive flooding in coastal areas of the world. Significant areas of the world currently occupied by large numbers of people would be submerged. The Earth is estimated to be warming at a rate of about 2°C in one hundred years.
Global warming, unlike traditional air pollution problems, is an issue of global scope. No national government alone could solve the problem. World-wide co-operation is necessary to reduce CO2 and various greenhouse emissions. The list of measures proposed to reduce greenhouse gases are:
Acid Rain
Scientists in North America and Europe have found that rain and snow in their region is becoming increasingly acid. This appears to be linked to the emission of enormous amounts of certain gaseous pollutants such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides. These gases dissolve in water to form strong acids. Although acid rain appears to pose no apparent threat to health, it can do considerable damage to human structures and equipment. More importantly, it has serious implications for ecological systems ranging from changes in leaching rates of nutrients from plants and soil, to acidification of lakes and rivers and effects on metabolism of organisms. This fallout in southern Norway, for example, has altered the acidity of certain streams so salmon eggs can no longer develop and salmon runs have vanished. Acid rain is still not a threat in Australia.
Photochemical Smog
The most well known form of chemically reacting air pollution (secondary pollutant) is photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is produced by reactions involving NO, NO2, unburnt hydrocarbons and oxygen. Photochemical smog is formed on bright sunny days and often occurs in summer. The gases and substances are formed in the atmosphere from hundreds of complex chemical reactions triggered by the intense sunlight. The resulting mixture contains hundreds of gases, including complex organic hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen and ozone. This leads to smoke-like haze conditions. The gas ozone (O3) constitutes approximately 90% of the oxidising potential of the mixture and measurement of its concentration is often taken as the indicator of the photochemical smog. In the photochemical process, NO2 is the absorber of the ultraviolet rays. Hydrocarbons also play an essential part in this reaction. Hydrocarbon emissions from petroleum storage tanks, paints and dry-cleaning industries, and oxides of nitrogen from power stations and industrial plants are important contributors of the pollutants responsible for smog formation. However, where motor vehicles are widely used, motor vehicle emissions are mainly responsible for the formation of photochemical smog.
Photochemical smog contributes to serious episodes of pollution in Australia. Ozone and other oxidants and acids formed during smog events are responsible for attacking living or non- living matter. Effects of these oxidants on crops, buildings, rubber and plastic are well documented. Health effects, such as eye irritation and difficulty in breathing, are observed during high smog episodes. Ozone also accelerates the aging process of all living tissues including lungs. Some hydrocarbons, especially the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), are carcinogenic by nature.
There are basically two approaches to air pollution control: (a) best practicable means approach and (b) air quality approach.
The best practicable means approach is based on assessing present practice and investigating how much it can be improved without excessive cost. For example, in designing chimney heights, current practice and experience of what has been found acceptable is considered. This approach has been criticised because it depends on the ability of the atmosphere to disperse the pollutants and ignores the total emission load.
The air quality management approach collates data on the effects of air pollution on humans, animals, vegetation, and structures and develops air quality standards. Air quality concentration standards or goals are set on health criteria and vegetation protection. They are usually defined as an average concentration for a fixed period of time (e.g. one hour, eight hours, one day or one year). It is also stated that the given concentrations must not exceed the standards more than once or twice in the stated period of time. Setting standards protects the environment and helps engineers to select an appropriate air pollution control measure. There are two types of standards: (a) ambient air quality standards and (b) source emission standards. In Australia, goals/standards are determined by the National Health and Medical Research Council. Air quality standards are set by some states while others rely on emission standards.
The set of plans, programs and measures in atmospheric protection are usually termed 'atmospheric protection strategy'. Technical measures applied at the source are a key element for controlling the emission of pollutants.
Technical measures used to limit air pollution are:
1. Measures leading to absolute decreases in the emission
2. Temporal optimisation of production conditions to eliminate the largest emission
3. Regional control of the amount of emissions of pollutant to eliminate local maxima
Adapted from Brown, L. R. (ed.) (1991) State of the World, Allen & Unwin.
City Traffic Congestion Control Measure
Accra -Credit schemes to help people to buy bicycles, rickshaws and other non-motorised vehicles.
Amsterdam -Local people may request that their street be converted into a 'woonerf' or living yard. In such streets, cars are free to enter as 'guests' but must navigate around trees and other landscaping. This makes the street more open to people walking, cycling and children playing.
Geneva -Provision of car parking at workplaces in the city centre is prohibited.
Goteborg -The city centre is divided into five pie-shaped zones, all accessible from a large ring road on the periphery. Automobiles are not allowed to cross the zone boundaries but public transport, emergency vehicles, bicycles and motor scooters may.
Harare -City employees receive low cost loans to buy bicycles. Merchants are required to provide bike parking in the CBD.
Karachi -The Metroville program enables people to build their own homes within walking distance of jobs and creates home-based workshops for producing textiles, furniture and other goods.
Lima -Pedestrian-only streets introduced.
London -Increased taxation for company cars each year since 1988.
Manila -In 1975 fuel prices were increased by nearly 100%, car sales and registration fees increased and a light railway was built. Between 1975 and 1985, petrol consumption fell by 43% and travel time on roads decreased by one-third.
Munich -85,000 sq m pedestrian zone in the city centre.
Paris -100,000 street parking places removed.
Phnom Penh -Guarded bicycle parks at railway stations.
Stockholm -Strict boundaries around cities to prevent 'sprawl'. The city is ringed with satellite communities of 25,000 to 50,000 people each, linked with a rail network and expressway. Shops, apartments and offices are clustered around railway stations that give people access to jobs on the periphery and in the centre.
Tokyo -Ride-and-park schemes: Bicycle and car parks at stations on the periphery of cities.
Toronto -Half all apartments built since 1954 are within walking distance of rapid-rail transport and 90% of all new offices are next to stations in the CBD. Federal employees charged 70% of the commercial rate for car parking.
Source: From EPA publication: CEPA, A National Approach Through Cooperation.
EPA Australia is represented on the Advisory Committee for Vehicle Emissions and Noise which is preparing design rules and draft regulations to the most stringent overseas standards. EPA is also developing a National Lead Abatement Strategy and is continuing to work with industry, community groups and state agencies to reduce the amount of lead in vehicle fuels. EPA assists development of national guidelines for industrial emissions and ambient air quality goals for photochemical oxidants such as ozone.
Each group uses one of the following scenarios to list:
Scenarios
1. All vehicle traffic except buses and selected taxis banned from inner city during the week. Trucks can unload goods between 9pm - 6.30am only.
2. Clean Air Act re: stationary sources to be enforced and all licences to discharge air pollutants rescinded within 6 months. Fines for continuation to be doubled to $10,000 for 1st offence, $50,000 2nd, $150,000 3rd. Business closed after further.
3. All new cars to have emission control systems fitted in 10 years or 160,000 kms by 1997, and strict emission standards in effect by 2003.
4. Large diesel trucks to cut emissions of particulates by 90% by 1997, with buses to do even better in urban areas.
5. Coal burning power stations to cut annual sulphur dioxide emissions to half current levels by 2000; to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides by half by 2000, and half CO2 emissions by 2010.
6. No new coal-powered power stations to be built in Australia; no expansion of existing ones; existing ones to cut all emissions of SO2 and NO2 by 2010.
7. Electricity supplies from coal stations to be charged at double existing rates to households and one- third existing rate to industry.
8. All emissions of CFCs, dry-cleaning fluids, fire fighting gases, and fluoride to be banned by 2000.
9. Implement wide spread education program for energy saving, reducing consumption of resources, increasing recycling, designing products to last longer.
10. All state governments to set up alternative power supplies from sun, wind and water; subsidise local government and individual initiatives on alternative power.
11. Enforce emission controls through production design changes in factories and find more environmentally friendly substitutes.
12. Tax every excess unit of pollution emitted by factories (e.g. of SO). Allow 'trade' in pollution rights so companies buy and sell pollution rights for emissions from one another. Each company would have specific emissions. When they reduce emissions below this level, they receive credit in form of permits, which could be sold. This gives financial incentive to cut emissions, and profit from sale of surplus points. The market place would thus determine the cheaper, most efficient way.
13. Build high efficiency natural gas turbine plants for our capital cities.
14. Require use of tall smokestacks and particulate- remover measures on all stationary-source factories and power stations. Associated with these, develop new methods of storage of the discarded wastes.
15. Substantially raise registration and parking fees on families owning more than one car.
16. Subsidise car manufacturers for all low-polluting, energy efficient cars produced and sold. These cars would have modified combustion engines, light bodies, emission controls, etc.
17. Major education program for politicians and government decision-makers on air pollution control and technological advances in pollution management.
18. Control indoor pollution by finding alternate materials for paints, cleaning and stripping and gluing compounds, and require accurate labels for these.
19. Ban cars from all roads every second day. Licence plates to be used to establish which cars are on road on which day. Fines for malpractice to be heavy.
20. Build efficient waste incinerators to produce power for factories. This should operate with re-cycling schemes to reduce wastes entering the waste stream.
Read out one of these every few minutes while groups are working on their scenarios. Ask participants to take the event into consideration.
Divide the class into workable groups to identify all the electric lights in the school. The groups should look at common rooms such as the auditorium, gym, and cafeteria, as well as classrooms. The teacher may wish to assign certain rooms or locations to different groups to check at a time when rooms are not occupied by students. Students should not overlook spotlights or floodlights. Have the class compile a list of electricity reductions that could be accommodated within the school. For each reduction, have them identify what the potential savings could be, or at least how they could measure the savings. Get them to talk about the need to invest money up-front (for example, replacing incandescent lamps with fluorescent ones) in order to realise a long-term payback.
It obviously costs money to buy more energy-efficient equipment, even lightbulbs. In order to determine the true savings of such devices, have the class calculate a 'payback' period for some devices. For example, a 60-watt bulb costs 89¢ and will last for 1,000 hours. A 13-watt compact replacement tube costs $16, but will last 10,000 hours. What are the savings, and what is the payback period?
Explain to the class about two types of costs: capital costs and operating costs. Capital costs are costs involved in purchasing or building something that is necessary to have. For example, a business's capital costs include the purchase prices of the furniture and equipment needed to provide the services or produce the goods it sells. Capital costs are usually divided by the expected life-span of the equipment to get an annualised cost. Operating costs are the day-to-day costs involved in providing the services or producing the goods. For example, the total cost of transportation includes buying a car and then keeping it running. The capital (one-time) cost might be $15,000. If the car is expected to last five years, the annualised capital cost would be $3,000. Operating (recurring) costs include gasoline, oil, tyres, insurance, normal repairs, and anything else needed to keep it running.
Have the class calculate the payback period of investing in high-efficiency light bulbs to replace existing bulbs throughout the school. Purchasing one high-efficiency tube requires a capital investment of $16, but lasts as long as 10 of the 89¢ bulbs. To obtain 1,000 hours of light from the incandescent bulb, it costs: 60 watts x 1000 hours = 60 kilowatt-hours x 8.5¢/kWh = $5.10 (operating cost) + $0.89 (capital cost) = $5.99. To obtain 10,000 hours high-efficiency bulb, it costs: 13 watts x 10,000 hours = 130 kilowatt-hours x 8.5¢/kWh = $11.05 (operating cost) + $16.00 (capital cost) = $27.05.