Atmosphere Theme Report

Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report)
Lead Author: Dr Peter Manins, Environmental Consulting and Research Unit, CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Authors
Published by CSIRO on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2001
ISBN 0 643 06746 9

Figures and Photographs

Figures

Figure 1 - Diagram of the vertical structure of the atmosphere showing layers and temperature variations with height.
Figure 2 - Map showing Australia's climate zones
Figure 3 - Large-scale atmospheric circulation affecting our climate
Figure 4 - Map of Antarctica and bases
Figure 5 - Antarctic Circumpolar Wave
Figure 6 - Atmospheric heat trapping
Figure 7 - Satellite image showing the springtime ozone hole over Antarctica
Figure 8 - Annual emissions of sulfur dioxide (as millions of tonnes of sulfur, MtS) and the atmospheric sulfur dioxide cycle
Figure 9 - Models of how air pollution is recirculated over Australian cities
Figure 10 - The Queensland Department of Natural Resources and the Department of Primary Industries 'Long Paddock'
Figure 11 - Typical winds and synoptic features in January.
Figure 12 - Typical winds and synoptic features in July.
Figure 13 - Location of the 379 high-quality rainfall stations.
Figure14 - Mean annual average rainfall for Australia.
Figure 15 - Annual mean rainfall of Australia.
Figure 16 - Rainfall variability in Australia.
Figure 17 - Annual rainfall trends in Australia from 1910 to 1999.
Figure 18 - Annual rainfall trends in Australia from 1950 to 1999.
Figure 19 - Percentage change in extreme daily rainfall from 1910 to 1995, as defined by the 99th percentile or the top 1%.
Figure 20 - Interannual variations in the annual extreme rainfall (99th percentile of daily rainfall) for Australia.
Figure 21 - Interannual variations in the autumn extreme rainfall (99th percentile of daily rainfall) for New South Wales.
Figure 22 - Percentage of Australia experiencing extreme wet conditions (red line) (above 90th percentile of annual total) and extreme dry conditions (teal line) (below 10th percentile) in each year from 1900 to 1999.
Figure 23 - Annual hemispheric and global temperature variations from 1860 to 1999.
Figure 24 - Annual mean temperature anomalies for Australia.
Figure 25 - Annual mean maximum temperature anomalies for Australia.
Figure 26 - Annual mean minimum temperature anomalies for Australia.
Figure 27 - Trend in mean annual temperatures (C/10 Year) for the calendar year (January to December), 1910 to 1999.
Figure 28 - Trend in maximum temperature (C/10 Year) from 1910 to 1999.
Figure 29 - Trend in minimum temperature (C/10 Year) from 1910 to 1999.
Figure 30 - Percentage area of Australia over which extreme annual mean temperatures occurred of greater than the 90th percentile (red) or less than the 10th percentile (teal) of temperature calculated over the 1961 to 1990 period.
Figure 31 - Upper air temperature over Australia from 1958 to 1999. Temperature values have been averaged for 850 to 500 hPa, 300 to 150 hPa and 100 to 50 hPa.
Figure 32 - Annual average total cloud cover over Australia from 1957 to 1998.
Figure 33 - Annual average point potential evapotranspiration over Australia.
Figure 34 - Aerosol optical depth-time series obtained from a tropical site and an arid site.
Figure 35 - East-west air circulation along the equator during El Nio and La Nia events.
Figure 36 - Annual variations in the Southern Oscillation Index.
Figure 37 - First dominant mode of variability derived from sea surface temperatures using data from 1958 to 1999.
Figure 38 - Second dominant mode of variability derived from sea surface temperature using data from 1958 to 1999.
Figure 39 - Sea level rises at Australian stations.
Figure 40 - Total number of tropical cyclones (teal bars), and the number of intense tropical cyclones (yellow bars) in the Australian region (105-160E).
Figure 41 - Occurrence of tropical cyclones over northern Australian waters and in three subregions around Australia.
Figure 42 - Weather-related disasters in Australia.
Figure 43 - Major Australian droughts and some examples of spatial variations in the intensity of El Nio induced droughts.
Figure 44 - The effect of drought in the first half of the 1990s as measured by serious rainfall deficiencies (rainfall lower than the 5th percentile).
Figure 45 - The effect of drought in the second half of the 1990s as measured by serious rainfall deficiencies (rainfall lower than the 5th percentile).
Figure 46 - Area of wheat cultivation in Australia from 1957-1958 to 1996-1997.
Figure 47 - Wheat yield and total production in Australia.
Figure 48 - Rice yield and total production in Australia from 1954-1955 to 1996-1997.
Figure 49 - Rice and sugar cultivation area from 1954-1955 to 1996-1997.
Figure 50 - Annual crushed cane and total production from 1954-1955 to 1996-1997.
Figure 51 - Carbon dioxide concentration from ice core and air samples since AD 1000.
Figure 52 - Methane concentration from ice core and air samples since AD 1000.
Figure 53 - Nitrous oxide concentrations since AD 1000 from ice cores and direct atmospheric sampling.
Figure 54 - Carbon dioxide concentrations and growth rate at Cape Grim since 1976.
Figure 55 - Methane concentrations and growth rate at Cape Grim since 1984.
Figure 56 - Nitrous oxide concentrations and growth rate at Cape Grim since 1993.
Figure 57 - Carbon dioxide emissions per capita for selected countries.
Figure 58 - Carbon dioxide emissions per unit of gross domestic product (GDP) for selected countries.
Figure 59 - Carbon dioxide emissions by subsectors from selected countries in 1996.
Figure 60 - Projected mean annual temperature changes for 2030 and 2070.
Figure 61 - Projected rainfall changes for 2030 and 2070.
Figure 62 - Share of total carbon dioxide equivalent emission by gas, excluding forest and grassland conversion, 1998.
Figure 63 - Share of total carbon dioxide equivalent emissions by sector, excluding forest and grassland conversion, 1998.
Figure 64 - Greenhouse gas emissions per capita from 1990 to 1998.
Figure 65 - Greenhouse gas emissions per dollar of gross domestic product, 1990 to 1998.
Figure 66 - Emissions by gas, excluding forest and grassland conversion, 1990 to 1998.
Figure 67 - Emissions and removals by sector excluding forest and grassland conversion, 1990 to 1998
Figure 68 - The vertical distribution of ozone in the atmosphere at mid-latitudes.
Figure 69 - Stratospheric chlorine (ppb) from the major ozone-depleting substances: CFCs, chlorinated solvents (methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride), halons, methyl bromide and HCFCs.
Figure 70 - Past and future stratospheric chlorine levels (ppb, cumulative) based on global atmospheric observations (1980-2000), historic (1960-1980) and future emission data (2000-2050) of the major ozone-depleting substances.
Figure 71 - Summer (Dec.-Feb. mean) total column ozone.
Figure 72 - Mean ozone profiles at Macquarie Island (55S) in August (top) and launching an ozone sonde at Macquarie Island.
Figure 73 - Total ozone levels (DU) over the Southern Hemisphere for 1-15 October in 1979, 1984, 1989, 1994, 1999 and 2000.
Figure 74 - October mean total ozone amount (DU) recorded by the Dobson spectrophotometer located at Halley Bay (66S), Antarctica.
Figure 75 - The area of the Antarctic ozone hole (million km 2), defined by the area contained within the 220 DU contour for 1-15 October, from 1980 to 2000.
Figure 76 - The average summer (Dec.-Feb.) clear-sky erythemal UV Index for the Australian region, 1979 to 1993.
Figure 77 - (a) Mean summer (Dec.-Feb.) total ozone (DU) for Lauder, New Zealand (45S, blue) and Melbourne (38S, red); (b) Estimated (black) and measured (red) UV Index under clear-sky conditions.
Figure 78 - Australian consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) in ODP-weighted kilotonnes (kt), based on production and import/export data.
Figure 79 - Methyl chloroform observations (ppt) at Cape Grim, Tas.
Figure 80 - Australian consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODP tonnes = tonnes multiplied by ODP) for methyl bromide and HCFCs.
Figure 81 - Changes in behaviour and attitude towards UV exposure over time.
Figure 82 - Australian incidence rates of malignant melanoma (MM, per 10 000 person-years) and non-melanocytic skin cancer (NMSC, per 1000 person-years).
Figure 83 - Australian urban and regional airsheds with ambient air quality monitoring.
Figure 84 - Sources of 1995 to 1996 emissions for Port Phillip Region, Vic.
Figure 85 - Australian consumption of leaded and unleaded petrol (megalitres, ML) from 1977 to 1998.
Figure 86 - Australian urban emissions of oxides of nitrogen.
Figure 87 - Australian urban emissions of carbon monoxide.
Figure 88 - Australian urban emissions of volatile organic compounds.
Figure 89 - Values of the Sydney morning air pollution index for January and February 2000.
Figure 90 - Number of days in Sydney and number of exceedences in Adelaide central business districts when eight-hour averaged carbon monoxide was above the NEPM Standard of 9 ppm.
Figure 91 - Highest eight-hour averaged carbon monoxide concentrations for selected Australian cities.
Figure 92 - Maximum one-hour average ozone concentrations in selected cities.
Figure 93 - Maximum four-hour ozone concentrations in selected cities.
Figure 94 - Number of days per year with maximum hourly ozone greater than the NEPM standard of 0.10 ppm for selected cities.
Figure 95 - Number of days per year with maximum hourly ozone greater than 0.08 ppm for selected cities.
Figure 96 - Number of days per year with maximum four-hourly ozone greater than NEPM Standard of 0.08 ppm for selected cities.
Figure 97 - Monthly variation in daily maximum one-hour ozone concentration in south-east Queensland during 1997 and 1998.
Figure 98 - Trends in airborne lead levels at Australian monitoring sites, 1985 to 1999.
Figure 99 - Highest one-hour nitrogen dioxide concentrations for selected Australian cities.
Figure 100 - Percentage of point source particle emissions by industry for south-east Queensland in 1993.
Figure 101 - Estimated particle emissions from domestic activities for south-east Queensland in 1993.
Figure 102 - Maximum 24-hour PM10 concentration for selected Australian cities.
Figure 103 - Number of days during the year when the 24-hour average concentration of PM10 exceeded the Air NEPM level in Australian cities.
Figure 104 - Annual maximum, 90th and 50th percentiles (median) and 10th percentile of maximum 24-hour PM10 concentrations from Perth (Caversham).
Figure 105 - Maximum 24 hour PM2.5 concentration for selected Australian cities.
Figure 106 - Source contributions to PM2.5 concentrations in the Perth Metropolitan Region between winter 1994 and winter 1995 recorded during the Perth Haze Study.
Figure 107 - Annual maximum, 90th and 50th percentiles (median) and 10th percentile of maximum 24 hour PM2.5 concentrations from Perth (Caversham).
Figure 108 - Estimated emissions of non-industrial benzene to urban airsheds 1998 to 1999.
Figure 109 - Quarterly average benzene concentrations in Perth (Duncraig).
Figure 110 - Number of days per year when one-hour visibility was less than 20 km.
Figure 111 - Percentage of people aged 20 to 44 years who suffer hay fever and nasal allergies.
Figure 112 - Number of odour complaints in Victoria and Queensland and percentage of total complaints in Queensland related to odour, 1998 to 2000.
Figure 113 - Sources of emissions and exposure to benzene in the USA.
Figure 114 - Characteristic concentrations of population exposed in Australian urban areas to various pollutants and average times.
Figure 115 - Nephelometer readings of outdoor and indoor particles over seven days.
Figure 116 - Fuel types for cooking and heating in New South Wales, expressed as percentages.
Figure 117 - Standardised death rate due to respiratory diseases and respiratory cancers.
Figure 118 - Standardised death rates for diseases of the respiratory system and cancers of the respiratory system for Australia and other OECD countries.
Figure 119 - Recorded emissions (kg/h) of PM2.5 from the Melbourne CityLink Domain Tunnel vent stack on 6-7 November 2000.
Figure 120 - Registered Australian motor vehicles (cars, trucks and motorcycles) per thousand persons.
Figure 121 - Total distance travelled in 1998 (in million km) by passenger vehicles in Australia.
Figure 122 - Concentrations of ozone and PM10 in selected cities in 1995.
Figure 123 - Concentrations in selected cities of PM10 and nitrogen dioxide in 1995.
Figure 124 - Concentrations of carbon monoxide in selected cities.
Figure 125 - Example display for Melbourne from the Australian Air Quality Forecasting System on a high pollution evening.
Figure 126 - Meteorological conditions for (top) Ash Wednesday, 16 February 1983; (middle) the Sydney Fires, January 1994; and (bottom) fires in the Perth region, April 1978.
Figure 127 - Number of days when one-hour sulfur dioxide exceeded Air NEPM (0.2 ppm, 1 day/year).
Figure 128 - Highest one-hour averages of sulfur dioxide since 1985 in regional centres of Australia.
Figure 129 - Annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in regional centres of Australia
Figure 130 - Maximum average hourly sulfur dioxide levels at Kalgoorlie Hospital and significant events since 1985.
Figure 131 - Sensitivity of Australian soils to acidification.
Figure 132 - Trends in surface soil pH, sulfate and sulfur dioxide with distance to the north-west of Mount Isa.
Figure 133 - Maximum daily average PM10 concentrations measured at regional centres in Australia.
Figure 134 - Number of occasions daily average PM10 was above current Air NEPM level in regional centres of Australia.
Figure 135 - Daily PM10 concentrations measured in Dampier, WA, throughout 1999.
Figure 136 - 24-hour average PM10 measurements every six days at Ti-Tree Bend, Launceston, Tas.
Figure 137 - Measured 90-day average lead concentrations in air at Mount Isa.
Figure 138 - Measured lead in air concentrations at Port Pirie.
Figure 139 - Measured lead concentrations in air at Cockle Creek.
Figure 140 - The 90-day average lead in air concentrations measured at Port Kembla, near the copper smelter.
Figure 141 - National emissions of carbon monoxide by sector and year.
Figure 142 - Maximum eight-hour averages for each month for carbon monoxide in Bunbury, south-west Western Australia.
Figure 143 - National emissions of volatile organic compounds (kt) by sector and year for Australia.
Figure 144 - Number of days one-hour ozone levels exceeded 0.1 ppm in regional New South Wales and Victoria.
Figure 145 - Maximum one-hour ozone concentrations measured in regional New South Wales and Victoria.
Figure 146 - Peak one-hour ozone levels measured throughout 1999 in Dampier (WA).
Figure 147 - Images of predicted one-hour ozone concentrations over New South Wales from the data analysis package of the Australian Air Quality Forecasting System.
Figure 148 - Diurnal ozone variations on days with or without bushfires in the region for Alphington in Melbourne (upper figure) and Eagle Farm in Brisbane (lower figure).
Figure 149 - Aircraft measurements of ozone concentrations in a smoke plume west of Katherine on 18 October 1997.
Figure 150 - Emissions of nitrogen oxides by sector and year for Australia.
Figure 151 - Maximum one-hour concentrations of nitrogen dioxide in regional centres of Australia.
Figure 152 - Measured one-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations during 1999 in Dampier (WA).
Figure 153 - Modelled ozone and nitrogen dioxide concentrations across regional Wollongong, Sydney and NSW Central Coast during the afternoon of 9 February 1994 (units: ppb; 1000 ppb = 1 ppm).
Figure 154 - Ten years of 90-day rolling averages measurements of fluoride near Portland Aluminium Smelter (1.3 km away) and Point Henry Aluminium Smelter (1.5 km away) in southern Victoria.
Figure 155 - Aggregate reduction in fluoride emissions from Comalco Ltd smelters (Boyne Island, Qld, Bell Bay, Tas., Tiwai Point, New Zealand).
Figure 156 - Annual average total suspended particulates (TSP) monitoring results from 1994 to 1996.
Figure 157 - Monitoring of benzene around BHP steel works, Port Kembla, during 1999.
Figure 158 - Number of days when local visual distance was below 20 km as determined by a nephelometer.
Figure 159 - Estimated fuel mass burnt across Australia in bushfires, forest fires and agricultural fires.
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