Biodiversity Theme Report

Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report)
Prepared by: Dr Jann Williams, RMIT University, Authors
Published by CSIRO on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2001
ISBN 0 643 06749 3

Biodiversity Issues and Challenges (continued)

Disturbance Regimes and Biodiversity (continued)

Harvesting

Harvesting of native wildlife [BD Indicators 8.1 and 8.2]

The harvesting of native flora and fauna for domestic and export purposes is controlled by various legislation in each state and territory. The extent of native flora and fauna harvesting taking place in various states and territories is outlined in the following sections.

State and territory-based policies and programs

South Australia

In South Australia, information is collected only for the number of permits issued for the harvesting of native flora (Table 15). Total permits issued for harvesting native flora have been increasing since 1996 when there were 36 issued. In 1997, 46 permits were issued, 1998, 56 and in 1999, 67.

Table 15: Number of permits issued for the harvest of terrestrial flora, South Australia, 1999
Use	Number
Non-commercial	22
Commercial	19
Native food	7
Biological collectors	8
Other	11
Total	67

For native fauna, data are kept on the number of permits issued. There are 98 permits issued to kangaroo shooters, eight permits issued to kangaroo processors and 815 permits (predominantly to property owners) issued to destroy protected animals (see Harvesting under Commonwealth government legislation). Similarly, there are 58 Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) farming permits issued and 57 permits were issued to people who wish to keep and sell eggs of protected species (e.g. emu eggs may be collected by Indigenous people for carving and can attract high prices on domestic and overseas markets).

Australian Capital Territory

The only data available on native fauna harvesting (by calendar year) for the Australian Capital Territory indicates that the trade of native fauna is growing, with a steady increase occurring in each category every year since 1996 (Table 16).

Table 16: Number of permits issued for the harvest of native fauna in the Australian Capital Territory from 1996 to 1999
Licence issued	1996	1997	1998	1999
Export	11	44	84	116
Import	22	65	134	186
Keep	79	92	114	165
Kill	2	3	3	24
Sell	23	90	162	184
Take	21	39	46	48
Total	158	333	543	723

Tasmania

Data on native animal and plant harvest are limited and records are only kept for the harvesting of Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), wallaby (e.g. Macropus sp.) and muttonbirds (Puffinus sp.), with annual values of production of around $400 000, $750 000 and $425 000, respectively. This industry provides a source of income for Indigenous communities in Tasmania. Statistics for the commercial harvesting of Brushtail Possum are available but these data do not document the non-commercial shooting of possums for crop protection purposes (Table 17). For example, permit returns indicate that an estimated 246 158 possums were taken between 1 July 1998 and 31 June 1999 and another 156 410 between 1 July 1999 and 23 May 2000. Harvesting statistics are also provided for the Short-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus tenuirostis) (Table 18).

Table 17: Commercial harvest statistics for Brushtail Possums *(Trichosurus vulpecula)* in Tasmania, 1995 to 2000
Year	Permit holders (No.)	Estimate of harvest (No.)	Royalties paid on skins ($A)	Royalties paid on carcasses ($A)
1995	40	6 012	561	1 435
1996	59	13 917	865	4 827
1997	35	12 364	3	11 325
1998	16	10 596	50	6 762
1999	38	11 635	100	8 739
2000^A	34	55 837	30	41 003

^AInterim figures to 23 May 2000.

Source: Hocking (2000).

Table 18: Harvest statistics for the Short-tailed Shearwaters *(Puffins tenuirostis)* in Tasmania, 1995-1998
Year	Total catch	No. of birds exported	Oil (L)	Feathers (kg)	No. of operators	No. of catchers
1995	203 425	71 320	796	965	8	41
1996	98 330	46 635	640	0	6	26
1997	180 217	44 400	801	270	6	33
1998	112 823	48 000	270	0	5	26

Source: Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service (1998).

Northern Territory

The main native fauna harvested in the Northern Territory are kangaroos and crocodiles, with crocodile harvesting mainly carried out on farms. Since 1971, crocodile species have been protected and only 16 adult crocodiles have been harvested from the wild (in 1997) since this time. Some adult and juvenile crocodiles have been taken from the wild for restocking, but over the last two decades this has totalled only 67. The Parks and Wildlife Commission (PWC) of the Northern Territory remove 'problem' crocodiles from native habitats and these animals are then used for breeding purposes on farms or sold for meat or skins. During the 1990s, between 130 and 240 crocodiles have been captured under the problem crocodile program in the Northern Territory (PWC of the Northern Territory 1998). The farms have worldwide sales of crocodile leather, skins, flesh and other crocodile products.

Juvenile crocodiles in the Darwin Crocodile Farm, one of the largest commercial crocodile breeding farms in Australia.

Source: C. Read

The main form of harvest from the wild is for crocodile eggs that are used to stock crocodile farms. Provisions for harvesting eggs, hatchlings and subadults are made in management programs. The total number of eggs collected from the wild has increased from 2320 in 1984 to around 20 000 from 1997 to 2000. Since 1993 to 1997, the number of farms, skins and meat produced from these farms has steadily increased (Table 19).

Table 19: Harvest of farmed crocodiles *(Crocodylus porosus* and *Crocodylus johnstoni)* in the Northern Territory, 1993 to 1997
Year	No. of farms	Skins (No.)(Crocodylus porosus)	Skins (No.)(C. johnstoni)	Meat (kg)(C. porosus & C. johnstoni)
1993	6	4 796	4 066	13 850
1994	7	3 595	4 034	17 401
1995	8	6 917	NA^A	26 626
1996	8	6 410	505	35 411
1997	8	8 448	604	34 621

^ANot available.

Source: PWC of the Northern Territory (1998).

Western Australia

Since 1993, detailed records have been kept for harvest data of native flora in Western Australia. These data indicate no clear trend in the total number of stems harvested from 1993 to 1999 (Table 20). The harvest of native species from Western Australia is carried out predominantly for the export market and therefore often follows styles and fashions required by other markets. Harvest of individual species can fluctuate from year to year (Table 21).

Table 20: Harvest of native flora (number of stems) in Western Australia, 1993 to 1995 and 1999
Botanical name	1993	1994	1995	1999
Acacia merinthophora	0	0	188 227	38 473
Adenanthos cuneatus^A	144 730	96 548	0	0
Adenanthos cygnorum^A	0	15 680	0	26 300
Agonis juniperina^A	3 155 058	804 541	1 439 962	568 987
Agonis parviceps	1 347 650	4 306 688	2 956 146	1 053 640
Anigozanthos manglesii	14 790	63 560	164 413	0
Anigozanthos pulcherrimus	294 750	607 700	864 795	42 050
Anigozanthos rufus	257 300	57 960	407 707	0
Banksia ashbyi	8 087	46 951	34 312	0
Banksia baxteri	1 707 537	1 353 115	520 743	1 339 752
Banksia burdettii	0	18 651	33 477	26 232
Banksia coccinea	410 658	274 786	354 904	167 245
Banksia hookeriana	2 133 480	4 687 107	1 276 829	2 500 178
Banksia prionotes	1 335 498	1 835 382	968 149	1 058 128
Banksia sceptrum	227 563	298 880	0	144 879
Banksia speciosa	119 103	342 136	178 621	0
Banksia victoriae	117 000	0	0	0
Beaufortia sparsa	752 782	527 811	738 039	476 430
Boronia heterophylla	0	72 920	210 622	132 957
Bossiaea aquifolium	383 690	656 190	441 290	0
Bracteantha bracteata	0	0	26 000	0
Callitris preissii	0	17 800	21 700	0
Caustis dioica	282 770	295 690	0	33 294
Chamelaucium megalopetalum	0	150 000	0	0
Chamelaucium uncinatum^B	750 681	1 011 203	900 556	8 561 080
Conospermum triplinervium^A	98 660	0	0	0
Corynanthera flava	119 320	0	214 240	65 475
Daviesia cordata	0	215 073	604 166	0
Dryandra formosa	549 402	334 550	187 404	179 106
Eucalyptus marginata	0	0	127 320	0
Eucalyptus tetragona	0	511 581	0	67 564
Geleznowia verrucosa	173 910	150 640	198 798	50 312
Juncus holoschoenus	412 720	602 080	0	0
Kingia australis	187 100	0	0	0
Lachnostachys eriobotrya^A	263 020	211 233	154 225	58 913
Lawrencella rosea	15 000	0	0	0
Leptocarpus scariosus	1 047 200	344 160	373 001	0
Leptospermum sericeum	0	0	260 800	0
Lysinema ciliatum	157 100	0	0	0
Macropidia fuliginosa	86 875	0	0	72 661
Melaleuca nesophila	9 380	0	0	0
Pericalymma ellipticum	0	0	138 000	0
Persoonia longifolia	732 398	1 086 682	1 352 687	1 754 737
Podocarpus drouynianus	2 910 325	3 347 805	3 181 632	6 299 426
Scholtzia involucrata	948 330	1 448 610	889 200	249 739
Stirlingia latifolia	2 894 100	2 949 068	2 268 430	1 161 947
Verticordia eriocephala	802 190	10 020	547 451	108 180
Verticordia nitens	293 020	337 854	987 772	284 368
Verticordia plumosa	0	0	34 806	0
Verticordia serrata	8 440	0	0	0
Xylomelum occidentale	272 344	302 729	381 003	228 136

^AProbably bush picked on private property.
^BProbably cultivated.

Table 21: Total harvest of native flora (millions of stems) in Western Australia, 1993 to 1999
Year	Cultivated	Picked on private property	Picked on Crown land	Total
1993	2.2	9.2	18.4	29.8
1994	2.5	10.6	21.4	34.5
1995	3.0	9.6	15.4	28.0
1996	10.1	8.0	14.1	32.2
1997	7.2	5.2	16.1	28.5
1998	5.6	9.5	20.0	35.1
1999	12.1	4.0	14.7	30.8

Successful captive breeding of the Australian Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) has occurred on crocodile farms in Western Australia and Johnston's Crocodile (C. johnstoni) has been bred at farms in Broome and Wyndham. During 1994, 639 Crocodylus porosus were bred in captivity, with a further 746 in 1995. As in the Northern Territory, the taking of crocodiles from the wild is subject to quota limitations and since the mid-1980s, the numbers taken have fluctuated. The rate of harvesting depends on the requirements for restocking and also the climatic conditions that may limit the supply of eggs and young (Table 22). Similarly, there has been no discernible trend in the number of crocodiles processed under licence for the seven years to 1998 (Table 23).

Table 22: Collections of the Australian Saltwater Crocodile *(Crocodylus porosus)* from the wild in Western Australia, by location of capture
Data include 'problem' animals and farm stock acquisition captures.
Cambridge Gulf system
	East Arm/Ord River	West Arm	Total	Elsewhere (King Sound)	Total
Non-hatchlings
1983-85	8	0	8	6	14
1986-88	6	0	6	7	13
1989-July 1992	34	81	115	18	133
1992-93^A	50	38	88	6	94
1993-94^A	12	2	14	0	14
1994-95^A	8	4	12	15	27
1995-96^A	14	1	15	2	17
1996-97^A	7	1	8	0	8
Total	139	127	266	54	320
Viable eggs/hatchlings
1983-85	0	0	0	0	0
1986-88	0	0	0	30	30
1989-92	0	268^B	268	0	268
1993	0	0	0	0	0
1994-95^C	0	6	6	0	6
1995-96	0	19	19	0	19
1996-97	0	20	20	0	20
1997	0	20	20	0	20
Total	0	333	333	30	363

^AFigures are from July to June;^BTaken from the King River;^CTaken January 1994 to June 1995.

Source: CALM (1999a).

Table 23: Crocodiles processed under licence in Western Australia, 1991 to 1998
Year	Crocodylus porosus	Crocodylus johnstoni
1991	70	11
1992	90	21
1993	89	167
1994	158	517
1995	426	60
1996	807	231
1997	191	173
1998	349	216
Total	2 180	1 396

New South Wales

The harvesting of kangaroos in New South Wales is undertaken to use the full carcass (as opposed to skin-only shooting). Since 1996, New South Wales has harvested a higher percentage of the available commercial quota than any other State. Kangaroo populations continue to fluctuate, primarily in response to seasonal conditions. Populations are monitored annually by aerial surveys, fixed-wing and helicopter.

New South Wales NPWS issues licenses for the commercial harvesting of protected native plants from private property and some Crown lands such as state forests. The agency also issues licences for the commercial cultivation of protected plant species. However, some common species of native flora that are harvested commercially, particularly for the cut-flower/filler industry, are not protected species under current legislation and there is accordingly no statutory ability for the NPWS to manage or monitor the harvest or utilisation of those species.

Harvesting under Commonwealth government legislation

Better and more uniform data exist for some harvests that are undertaken in various Australian jurisdictions, but are listed under the Commonwealth's Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982.

Around 62% of the available quota for kangaroo harvesting takes place in Queensland (Tables 24 and 25). Nationally, around 63% of the total quota allowed is used. The quota levels set are well within the estimated population levels of the commercial harvest area (Tables 26 and 27). Numbers of the Wallaroo (Macropus robust us) have almost doubled since 1998, showing the fluctuations that can occur from year to year. Between 1998 and 1999, populations of all kangaroos increased, particularly for the Wallaroo and particularly in Queensland (Tables 26 and 27). In 1999, population estimates for South Australia, New South Wales and Western Australia were based on fixed wing aerial surveys. Population estimates for Queensland were based on extrapolation of helicopter counts in monitor blocks using line transect methodology.

Table 24: Commercial kangaroo harvest quotas in Australia in 1998
Base and supplementary quotas are given in the lower part of the table.
State	Red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus)	Eastern Grey (Macropus giganteus)	Western Grey (Macropus fuliginosus)	Euro/Wallaroo (Macropus robustus)	Whiptail Wallaby (Macropus parryi)	Bennetts Wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus)	Tasmanian Pademelon ( Thylogale billardierii)	Total
NSW	655 540	460 500	163 700	29 400	0	0	0	1 309 140
Qld	610 000	970 000	0	270 000	25 000	0	0	1 875 000
SA	327 000	0	206 000	88 000	0	0	0	621 000
WA	180 000	0	74 000	10 000	0	0	0	264 000
Flinders Island, Tas.	0	0	0	0	0	7 000	14 000	21 000
Total	1 772 540	1 430 500	443 700	397 400	25 000	7 000	14 000	4 090 140
NSW Base quota	618 540	382 500	151 700	22 400	-	-	-	1 175 140
NSW Supplementary quota	37 000	78 000	12 000	7 000	-	-	-	134 000
SA Base quota	206 000	-	64 000	55 000	-	-	-	325 000
SA Supplementary quota	121 000	-	142 000	33 000	-	-	-	296 000

Table 25: Kangaroos species killed under commercial harvest quotas across Australia in 1998
State	Red Kangaroo ( Macropus rufus)	Eastern Grey ( Macropus giganteus)	Western Grey ( Macropus fuliginosus)	Euro/Wallaroo ( Macropus robustus)	Whiptail Wallaby ( Macropus parryi)	Bennetts Wallaby ( Macropus rufogriseus)	Tasmanian Pademelon ( Thylogale billardierii)	Total
Qld	510 622	486 379	486 379	167 422	217	0	0	1 164 640
NSW	495 100	314 328	123 826	7 535	0	0	0	940 789
SA	227 904	0	0	24 981	0	0	0	326 589
WA	110 588	0	0	4 851	0	0	0	160 539
Flinders Island, Tas.	0	0	0	0	0	149	70	219
Total	1 344 214	800 707	242 630	204 789	217	149	70	2 592 776

Table 26: Population estimates for kangaroos within commercial harvest areas in 1998
State	Red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus)	Western Grey (Macropus fuliginosus)	Eastern Grey (Macropus giganteus)	Euro/Wallaroo (Macropus robustus)
NSW	3 595 700	1 202 594	3 564 500	466 738
Qld	4 870 000	-	9 440 000	2 660 000
SA	2 007 000	963 000	-	412 000
WA	1 935 000	664 700	-	168 000
Total^A	12 407 700	2 830 294	13 004 500	3 706 738

^AThe actual national population would be significantly higher as these figures do not include population estimates for areas not surveyed, such as the area east of the Great Dividing Range.

Table 27: Population estimates for kangaroos within commercial harvest areas in 1999
State	Red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus)	Western Grey (Macropus fuliginosu s)	Eastern Grey (Macropus giganteus)	Euro/Wallaroo (Macropus robustus)
NSW	2 952 442	1 273 779	3 427 554	462 418
Qld	5 440 000	- ^A	11 100 000	5 250 000
SA	1 708 000	969 000	-	412 000
WA	2 330 000	688 300	-	168 000
Total	12 430 442	2 931 079	14 527 554	6 292 418

^ANA;^Bthe actual national population would be significantly higher as these figures do not include population estimates for areas not surveyed, such as the area east of the Great Dividing Range.

In South Australia and New South Wales, however, the population of Red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus) declined over these years. For animals whose numbers fluctuate dramatically with rainfall, statistics from such a short period of time may have limited use.

Beginning in 1997, New South Wales has included a provision for kangaroos previously killed in the commercial zone under non-commercial permits to be included as an identified component of the quota. In 1996, South Australia refined the setting of the commercial harvest quota to provide for the separate identification of a sustainable use component to the quota and an additional land mitigation component. This latter component is to be released only when there is an identified threat to land management goals in areas where the 'sustainable' component of the quota has been taken.

Export data for Australian native plants and animals are available for permits issued (Table 28). Table 28 shows only those taxa most commonly appearing in the permit database for the years shown. Over 250 species were subject to permit approvals, most for small and/or occasional quantities. There is substantial year-to-year variation in the volumes of individual species exported. Data are collected and reported in a range of units such as 'stems' and 'bunches' which makes comparisons between years and the determination of any trends difficult. It has not been possible to assess the significance of harvest levels of specific taxa, or the location of harvest.

Table 28: Most commonly recorded Australian exports of native plants and animals
Scientific name	Description	Unit^A	1990	1995	1999
Acacia merinthophora	Stems	No.	135	146 995	0
Acanthophis antarcticus	Venom	NS	0	5 488	0
Acrosterigma reeveanum	Shells	No.	181	46	3
Actinopyga mauritiana	Dried bche-de-mer	kg	0	0	1 645
Adenanthos cuneatus	Stems	No.	0	127 019	0
Adiantum formosum	Dried plants Fronds Stems	No. No. No.	0 120 000 32 280	0 80 000 95 878	55 000 0 20 000
Agonis parviceps	Stems	No.	173 844	2 087 045	0
Banksia baxteri	Stems	No.	279 060	702 552	0
Banksia hookeriana	Stems Flowers	No. No.	344 695 0	1 855 013 0	0 33 060
Banksia prionotes	Stems	No.	182 730	1 069 158	240
Bowenia serrulata	Stems	No.	0	33 370	1 845
Calochlaena dubia	Dried plants Dried flowers	No. No.	0 0	0 0	5 000 15 000
Caustis blakeii	Stems Stems	Nb No.	84 420 320 001	0 0	0 0
Caustis dioica	Flowers Stems	No. No.	0 56 190	0 71 647	40 000 0
Caustis flexuosa	Stems Fronds	No. No.	0 15 000	143 270 0	0 10 000
Cecidomyiidae	Live invertebrates	No.	0	4 000	3 000
Chaceon bicolor	Live or dead crabs	Kg	0	0	3 243
Culcita dubia	Fronds	No.	105 000	0	0
Dicksonia antarctica	Live plants	No.	16	504	28 828
Durvillea potatorum	Seaweed Fronds Seaweed	L kg tn	1 636 1 318 995 0	0 32 460 3 515	8 740 0 460
Exocarpos cupressiformis	Stems	Nb	500	0	0
Hemiergis spp.	Live animal(s)	No.	0	0	460
Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra	Dried, fresh and Frozen bche-de-mer Dried bche-de-mer Dried bche-de-mer Meat Frozen bche-de-mer	kg No. kg kg No.	0 0 0 0 0	0 0 7 570 13 600 17 105	30 830 319 000 7 296 0 2 518
Hypothalassia armata	Live or dead crabs	kg	0	0	2 671
Juncus holoschoenus	Stems	No.	524 794	326 710	0
Lepidoptera	Eggs Live invertebrates	No. No.	20 22	0 0	0 0
Lycopodium cernuum	Live plants	Nb	4 400	0	0
Macropus eugenii	Scientific specimens	No.	0	5 000	0
Macropus fuliginosus	Meat Skin Scientific specimens	kg No. g	0 65 061 2 100	71 248 179 451 0	8 168 25 344 0
Macropus giganteus	Hat accessories Belt Hat Leather (skins) Skin Meat Golf accessories Hat accessories Toy koalas Meat Meat products Leather (skins) Skin	No. No. No. No. No. kg No. No. No. No. kg No. No.	996 392 0 0 1 300 481 156 457 0 0 22 379 0 0 0 0	0 0 0 0 0 1 494 230 1 479 2 956 4 410 33 922 83 328 488 630 995 690	239 311 4 253 173 275 213 591 651 908 0 239 0 9 600 0 173 275 214 191
Macropus rufus	Leather (skins) Skin Meat	No. No. kg	0 872 351 333 418	190 628 1 102 282 1 326 173	2 537 240 710 1 049 429
Macropus spp.	Meat Skin	kg No.	0 0	0 0	18 000 28 395
Macrozamia miquelii	Fronds Fronds Stems	Nb No. No.	2 300 12 400 800	0 600 0	0 0 420
Neotrigonia bednalli	Shells	No.	144	140	75
Nothofagus cunninghamii	Stems	No.	0	616	1 200
Persoonia virgata	Live plants Stems	Nb No.	4 400 0	0 6 900	0 0
Phyllopteryx taeniolatus	Live fish	NS	0	0	69
Podocarpus drouynianus	Flowers	No.	0	11 100	5 220
Pseudocarcinus gigas	Live or dead crabs	kg	0	0	8 636
Pteridium esculentum	Dried plants Stems	No. No.	0 118	0 74 945	20 000 0
Pycnosorus globosus	Flowers	No.	0	0	534 150
Wodyetia bifurcata	Seeds	No.	0	1 250	27 090
Xanthorrhoea johnsonii	Leaves Fronds Live plants Leaves Live plants Stems	Nb Nb Nb No. No. No.	79 550 6 120 39 350 39 700 0 0	148 000 0 0 0 0 28 000	0 0 0 0 827 0
Xanthorrhoea semiplana	Extract	kg	0	25 000	18 000

^ANo. = number; NS = not specified; kg = kilograms; Nb = number of bunches; L = litres; tn = tonne; g = gram.

Data on plants and animals exported illegally come from prosecutions and will thus be an underestimate. From the data provided it is usually impossible to determine what species are involved in prosecution or what crime was involved unless each individual file is analysed, a task beyond this report (Table 29).

Table 29: Prosecutions and trials under the *Wildlife Protection Act 1982* (Cwlth) for illegally importing/exporting wildlife, 1990 to 1999
Year	Guilty plea	Not guilty plea	Total	Fined or sentenced
1990	13	1	14	10
1991	17	4	21	10
1992	13	5	18	13
1993	7	4^A	11	10
1994	25	7	32	20
1995	12	10^A	22	18
1996	14	3^A	17	14
1997	15	2	17	15
1998	15	4	19	18
1999	8	0	8	7

^AIncludes some 'not applicable' and 'changed' pleas.

Source: Commonwealth Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions (pers. comm. 2000).

Management plans for sustainable harvesting [BD Indicator 17.1]

Overall there are 11 management plans approved under the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 (Table 30). Most of the management plans are for species of kangaroo.

Table 30: Management programs approved under S10 of the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 (Cwlth)
Management program name	Approval period
A Management Program for Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus johnsoni in the Northern Territory of Australia	1 Jan. 1999-31 Dec. 2003
Management Program for the Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and the Freshwater Crocodile Crocodylus johnsoni in Western Australia	1 Jan. 1999-31 Dec. 2003
The Short-tailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris Management Program in Tasmania	1 Jan. 1998-31 Dec. 2000
Management Program for the Brushtail Possum Trichosurus vulpecula (Kerr) in Tasmania 1997 to 1999	1 Jan. 2000-31 Dec. 2004
The New South Wales Kangaroo Management Program	1 Jan. 1998-31 Dec. 2002
The Kangaroo Conservation and Management Program in South Australia	1 Jan. 1998-31 Dec. 2002
1998 to 2002 Management Program for Commercially Taken Macropods in Queensland	1 Jan. 1998-31 Dec. 2002
Management Program for the Red Kangaroo Macropus giganteus in Western Australia 1998 to 2002	1 Jan. 1998-31 Dec. 2002
Management Program for the Western Grey Kangaroo Macropus fuliginosus in Western Australia 1998 to 2002	1 Jan. 1998-31 Dec. 2002
Management Program for the Euro Kangaroo Macropus robustus in Western Australia1998 to 2002	1 Jan. 1998-31 Dec. 2002
Management Program for Bennett's Wallaby Thylogale billardierii and Tasmanian Pademelon on Flinders Island, Tasmania 1998 to 1999	1 Jan. 2000-31 Dec. 2002

The Act provides for management programs to be declared where there is sufficient information available on the biology of the species proposed for harvesting to ensure that the activity will not be to the irreversible detriment of the species, or its habitat. Management programs are usually administered by state or territory government agencies and reflect state/territory-wide management for the particular species concerned.

Harvesting indicators: An overview [BD Indicators 8.1, 8.2 and 17.1]

Analysis of the available data for Indicators 8.1, 8.2 and 17.1 reveals that, with the exception of kangaroo harvest and permit data and flora harvest data from Western Australia, there is an acute lack of accessible comparable data for most states on harvesting of native flora and fauna. There is a urgent need for improvements in the reporting system for prosecutions involving illegal exports of Australian wildlife so that it is possible to determine what species are being threatened.

Fisheries

Australia has sovereign rights to explore and exploit resources within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which is the second biggest in the world, and also has a claim over the continental shelf where it extends beyond the EEZ outer boundary. It also has the responsibility to manage and use these resources wisely, as well as to conserve biodiversity. The total Australian Marine Jurisdiction (AMJ), which includes the EEZ and continental shelf off the Australian mainland and external territories, covers a total surface area of around 16 million square kilometres - about twice the size of the Australian mainland.cellspacing="2"

Australian fisheries are based on the harvest of wild, native organisms, and this represents a highly significant direct use of elements of the species level of biodiversity. Traditionally, fisheries management has concerned itself primarily with the management of targeted fish stocks. In recent years, fisheries management has broadened in scope to include consideration of the incidental mortality or injury of other species and to the effects of fishing operations on the environment. Such an approach is termed 'ecosystem management', a principle that dates from reform of national fisheries policy in the late 1980s to include ESD.

Proportion of numbers collected over size of reproducing population [BD Indicator 8.3]

Catch levels and management of major fisheries stocks are covered in the Coasts and Oceans Report.

Fisheries bycatch [BD Indicator 8.4]

Bycatch species are those species that are not targeted in fisheries operations and are caught or affected incidentally. The definition of bycatch is complex, and can vary from fishery to fishery. Bycatch includes other fishery species, some of which may be retained and sold, as well as other species, including marine mammals and seabirds. In some fisheries, especially those using trawl techniques and comprising a mixture of species, bycatch is common due to the gear and methods used. In others, the specific nature of the gear and methods used mean that lower bycatch rates are possible. The Bureau of Rural Sciences used the approach outlined in Table 31 for defining bycatch as a proportion of total catch (Barratt et al. 2001). In general, bycatch describes a subset of the actual species present, with invertebrates and algae either grouped or ignored.

Table 31: Definitions of bycatch
Component of total 'catch'^A	Target species	Non-target species
Retained	A	B
Discarded	C	D
Other^B	E	F

^ATotal catch: A+B+C+D;Retained catch: A+B;Discarded catch: C+D;Bycatch: B+D+F;Byproduct: B;
^BOrganisms affected by fishing gear but which do not reach the deck.

Source: Barratt et al. (2001).

The National Bycatch Policy (NBP) adopts the definition of bycatch given in Table 31, but restricts attention to categories D and F (i.e. not to incidentally caught, retained catch). Bycatch has become a widely recognised issue, mostly because of the mortality of high-profile species such as Dugongs, seals and albatross (see Albatross and bycatch policy). However, for most fisheries and bycatch species, measurement is limited at best to broad estimates of weight of bycatch versus weight of total catch.

Published reviews of fisheries bycatch note that data are very poor for most fisheries, and that an accurate overview of the whole fisheries sector is not available. In some fisheries, discarded catch need not be recorded in fishers' logbooks and, where such recording is required, compliance may be low. This situation, in part, reflects the difficulty of identifying many species that are caught incidentally. In some fisheries, the bulk of bycatch is discarded, usually with high mortality rates. There is a significant bycatch problem in some fisheries, notably those utilising trawl and longline methods. The problem appears to be reduced in highly targeted fisheries such as those using jigging or diving.

The Barratt et al. (2001) report estimated discarded catch as a proportion of total catch for 144 managed fisheries in Australia. They classified the 23 Commonwealth managed fisheries for which data are available according to the components of total catch used in Table 31. Information on discarded non-target species is only available for 26% of the 23 Commonwealth fisheries used in the analysis (Table 32).

Table 32: Percentage of fisheries in Australia for which information is available on different components of their catch
Category	Percentage of fisheries for which information is available
A (retained target catch)	100
B (retained non-target catch)	70
C (discarded target catch)	39
D (discarded non-target catch)	26
E (other target species)	9
F (other non-target species)	39

Other effects of fisheries on biodiversity

'Ecological effects' refers to a range of other impacts of fisheries relevant to the species level of biodiversity. Recognition of such effects is a result of the beginning of the adoption of an 'ecosystem management' approach to fisheries, where management is intended to cater for impacts other than on the target stock. Ecological effects of some major Australian fisheries include:

removal or mortality of one or more species (target or non-target), to the point where populations of that species may be rendered vulnerable
the effect of 'fishing debris', such as the entanglement, pollution and possible drowning of wildlife in discarded or lost lines and nets
impact on feeding or other behaviour of species such as Dugongs (e.g. through disturbance and boat-strike by vessels)
disturbance of habitat, especially of seabed plant and animal communities through trawling
indirect changes or destabilisation of ecosystems through the removal of important predator or prey species that may affect other populations
impact on scavenging populations through the discarding of large quantities of bycatch and processing waste.

The effect of fisheries such as the Bass Strait Central Scallop Fishery on the biodiversity of benthic communities is likely to be high, but few reliable data are available.

Management plans for ecologically sustainable harvesting [BD Indicator 17.1]

Management plans are now provided for in all Australian fisheries legislation (Table 33). Fisheries without management plans are managed in accordance with the general requirements of the relevant legislation. Although the situation across jurisdictions varies, the generally small proportion of fisheries with management plans, and the even fewer catering for bycatch, is a matter of concern from a biodiversity perspective.

Table 33: Management plans for Australian fisheries (at June 1999)
Statute (jurisdiction)	Statutory provision for management plans	No. of fisheries managed	No. of fisheries with management plans	No. of plans dealing with non-target species
Fisheries Management Act 1991 (Cwlth)	Yes	23	4	3
Fisheries Act 1994 (Qld)	Yes	17	2	1^A
Fisheries Management Act 1994 (NSW)	Yes	8	0	0
Fisheries Act 1995 (Vic.)	Yes	9	0	0
Living Marine Resource Management Act 1995 (Tas.)	Yes	9	5	1^B
Fisheries Act 1982 (SA)	Yes^C	13	13	0
Fisheries Resources Management Act 1994 (WA)	Yes	48	33	1^D
Fisheries Act 1988 (NT)	Yes	17	3	0

^ADraft trawl fishery plan mentions bycatch targets;
^BBycatch targets mentioned in scale fish policy document;^CTerm 'scheme of management' is used in the Act;
^DReported, not analysed in source document.

Source: Barratt et al. (2001).

Given that most of the legislation is less than one decade old, and that it has only been in recent years that ecosystem management and bycatch have been accorded real attention, the status may be viewed as transitional, and one that should be expected to improve markedly in the next few years and monitored accordingly. Requirements for environmental assessments and management plans under the EPBC Act and related legislation will speed up this process. A remaining issue even where management plans exist is of coordination of management where stocks cross jurisdictions.

The policy setting

Some policy and management changes have been initiated in the past decade affecting both target stock management, bycatch and other environmental effects. For example, Dugong Protection Areas have been introduced in waters adjacent to Queensland where the use of mesh nets are restricted or prohibited.

At the national level, a NBP was released in 1999 following cooperative development of the Commonwealth, states and territories, and expressly stated as being consistent with the National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development and the NSCABD. The Policy states several guiding principles that should be adhered to in all legislation and management plans, including: promotion of stewardship, cooperation and transparency, integration of short-term and long-term approaches, and application of the precautionary principle. The overarching objective of the Policy is to ensure that bycatch species and populations are maintained at sustainable levels.

The NBP committed the Commonwealth to the development of bycatch action plans (BAPs) for all fisheries through a defined, multistep policy formulation. The Policy lists a range of strategies and a checklist of considerations to be taken into account when developing BAPs. BAPs do not have legal standing, and are not based on minimum standards of performance.

Effectiveness of bycatch controls [BD Indicator 17.2]

Investigation of Commonwealth fisheries (Barratt et al. 2001) suggest that 114 or 79% of Australia's 144 commercial fisheries have low to very low discard rates (defined as <25% of total catch discarded) while 11 fisheries have high discard rates (>50% discarded) (Table 31, C+D). Fishing conducted by longline and dropline has increased in intensity (Figure 26), while the estimated level of bycatch for some significant fisheries is very high. The Northern Prawn Fishery, Southern Bluefin Fishery and South East Trawl Fishery, in particular, have high levels of bycatch and have, at least, a significant effect on marine biodiversity (Figure 27). For example, discard figures of 95, 83 and 50 to 86% are reported for these three fisheries, respectively. Some 30 000 to 60 000 t of marine life might be discarded to harvest 10 300 t of Northern Prawns. The 'discard' may involve over 500 species including turtles, snakes, sawfish, sharks and seabirds.

Figure 26: Change in fishing effort (hooks) in the eastern sector of the Australian Pelagic Longline Fishery and the area of the fishery (square nautical miles) between 1989 and 1998.
Poly.; polynomial curve fitted to the data.

Source: Barratt et al. (2001)

Figure 27: Total kilometres trawled in the South East Trawl Fishery between 1989 and 1998.

Source: Barratt et al. (2001)

Various strategies are being investigated or adopted in other jurisdictions that could help reduce bycatch levels. In Queensland, the East Coast Trawl Fishery management plan includes the compulsory use of turtle excluder devices (TEDs). In New South Wales, research is being undertaken to establish methods of reducing juvenile fish bycatch in estuarine prawn and fish hauling. Release devices are also being introduced into prawn trawl fisheries in estuarine and ocean areas. In Western Australia, the issue is being attended to through action plans for individual fisheries. In general, the efficacy of the various bycatch reduction strategies and technologies requires ongoing monitoring.