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• Atmosphere
• Biodiversity
• Coasts & oceans
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• Australian Antarctic Territory

Biodiversity Issues and Challenges (continued)

Protecting Biodiversity (continued)

Species diversity

Species richness [BD Indicators 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 and 10.4]

The most recent estimate of global species richness (Lawton & May 1995) puts the total number between five and seven million species globally, with an upper limit of perhaps 15 million species. Estimates of the total number of species in Australia vary considerably. SoE (1996) reported around one million species, whereas Horwitz et al. (1999) believe that it is likely to exceed ten million. These figures demonstrate the large gaps in knowledge about even the number of species found in Australia.

The ABRS provided the most recent summary of our knowledge of species diversity in Australia (summarised in Table 46). Only a few vertebrate groups are thought to be fully described: frogs, birds, lizards, snakes, birds, mammals and lancelets. Consequently there are very few examples where the number of species is believed to be the final total. Table 46 also provides the most recent estimate of the number of species formally described.

Table 46: The estimated total number and percentage of species described in Australia and the percentage of endemic species for various taxa

Taxonomic group	Estimated number of species described [BD Indicator 10.3]	Estimated total number of species [BD Indicators 10.1 and 10.2]	Estimated percentage described (as at 2000) [BD Indicator 10.4]	Endemic (%)
Prokaryota (Bacteria)
	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown
Protoctistae (Unicellular organisms)
	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown
Fungi
Fungi (other than lichens)	~12 500	~250 000	~5	90
Lichens	2 877	~5 000	~60	Unknown
Plantae (Plants)
Vascular plants (flowering plants, cycads, conifers, ferns and fern allies)	15 638	20 000 to 25 000	~70	85
Algae	5 000	10 000 to 12 000	~45	Unknown
Bryophyta (mosses and allies)	1 500	~2 500	~60	Unknown
Total Australian flora (plants and fungi)	~25 000	~290 000	~9	-
Animalia (Animals)
Invertebrates
Porifera (sponges)	1 416	~3 500	~40	Unknown
Cnidaria (corals, anemonies, jellyfish)	1 270	~1 760	~70	Unknown
Platyhelminthes (flatworms, parasites)	1 506	~10 800	~14	Unknown
Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)	57	~160	~35	Unknown
Nematoda (roundworms, threadworms)	2 060	30 000	~7	Unknown
Mollusca (squid, octopus, mussels, clams, snails)	9 336	~12 250	~75	90
Annelida (ringed worms, earthworms)	2 125	~4 230	~50	Unknown
Onychophora (velvet worms)	56	~56	~100	Unknown
Crustacea (crayfish, crabs, prawns etc.)	6 426	~9 500	~70	Unknown
Arachnida (spiders, mites etc.)	5 666	~27 960	~20	Unknown
Insecta (insects)	58 532	~83 860	~70	90
Echinodermata (starfish, echinoderms etc.)	1 206	~1 400	~85	Unknown
Other invertebrates	2 929	~7 230	~35	Unknown
Chordates
Tunicata (sea squirts, doliolids, salps)	536	~735	~70	Unknown
Cephalochordata (lancelets)	8	~8	~100	Unknown
Agnatha (lampreys, hagfishes, slime eels)	5	~10	~50	Unknown
Pisces (fish)	4 150	~5 250	~80	90
Amphibia (frogs)	176	~176	~100	93
Reptilia (snakes, lizards)	633	~633	~100	89
Aves (birds)	825	~825	~100	45
Mammalia (mammals)	369	~369	~100	83
Total Australian fauna	99 287	~200 000	~50%	-

Source: Data on species numbers, collected by the ABRS. Data on endemic species compiled from: Office of the Chief Scientist (1992); Anderson (1994); Mummery & Hardy (1995); Scott et al. (1997); Burgman & Lindenmayer (1998); WCMC (2000); T. May (pers. comm.).

For most groups, particularly the invertebrates, there are still large gaps in our knowledge. This makes it difficult to estimate the total number of species and, therefore, the percentage of number of species described in each group. Based on the figures provided in Table 46, however, for many groups it is estimated that more than 50% of species remain to be described. Estimates of the number of some marine species is thought to be out by three-fold to five-fold. For example, in 1974 there were over 1300 sponge species recorded in Australia but there could be up to 5000 (Chris Battershill, pers. comm.). With the advent of molecular taxonomic techniques, the figure is also likely to be an underestimate. For some groups such as cryptograms, there is not even agreement on what the accepted species are, and hence no list is available of the number of species that have been described.

Of the groups that are described, certain taxa in Australia contain a globally significant number of species (e.g. reptiles, ants, lichens), as do certain regions (e.g. Great Barrier Reef, wet tropics, south-west corner). Australia has a rich and unique assemblage of vertebrates and vascular plants. By world standards, the number of freshwater fish species in Australia is low (Table 47), reflecting the small amount of freshwater habitat.

Table 47: A global comparison of the number of freshwater fish species

Continent	No. of freshwater fish species
South America	2 200
Africa	1 800
Asia	1 500
North America	950
Central America	354
Europe	250
Australia	170
New Zealand	27

The value for Asia is probably an underestimate because of relatively little taxonomy and few surveys.

Source: Banister (1992).

The importance and dominance of invertebrates as a component of biodiversity, and their role in ecosystem functioning is well documented (Ponder & Lunney 1999). The overwhelming number of species and the lack of fundamental taxonomic activity is regarded as being the major impediment to effective invertebrate conservation in Australia and throughout the world. Estimates of total numbers of invertebrate species are inherently unreliable because of the lack of relatively complete taxonomies for the most species-rich taxa. Recher and Majer (1996) (based on a study where they sampled 1600 invertebrate species on four different species of eucalypt) estimated that around 250 000 species of just one group of terrestrial invertebrates would be found in association with the genus Eucalyptus. In contrast, Yen and Butcher (1997) estimated that in total there were around 300 000 species of non-marine invertebrates, of which less than 100 000 are described. Whatever the number, invertebrates make a major contribution to species diversity in Australia (Ponder & Lunney 1999). With the exception of a few charismatic groups, most notably the butterflies, there is very little biological or ecological knowledge of these species.

Microorganisms (see The fascinating world of microbial biodiversity), are also an important component of species richness in Australia and can have utilitarian and indirect values in both marine and terrestrial systems. Very little is known about these organisms, although estimates have been made of the species richness and endemism of fungi (Table 46), based largely on their visible fruiting bodies. To illustrate their diversity, May and Simpson (1997) estimated that the approximately 700 species of eucalypts in Australia are likely to have about 7000 species of associated fungi.

Even less is known about other microorganisms. For example, so little is known about bacterial diversity in Australia that even an estimate of the total number is unavailable. However, recent studies are starting to shed some light: Gordon and Fitzgibbon (1999) identified 90 species of bacteria in 20 genera in the gastrointestinal tract of Australian mammals. As with invertebrates, these and other microorganisms are poorly studied and are usually underrepresented in species lists and biological surveys. The number of plant species present at a site can also be underrepresented if surveys of the soil seed bank are not undertaken. For example, a recent study in the wheat belt of Western Australia found that at some sites over 50% of native plant species were detected only as seeds in the soil.

Number of subspecies as a percentage of species [BD Indicator 10.5]

Information to report on this indicator is unavailable.

Endemism [BD Indicator 10.6]

A taxon (e.g. a species) is considered endemic to a particular area if it occurs only in that area. The proportion of vertebrate taxa in Australia that are endemic is particularly high compared to other countries, with the richness of vertebrate species being largely as a result of a remarkable variety of reptiles. Because of its size, age and geological and evolutionary isolation, over 80% of mammal, reptile and flowering plant species in Australia are also endemic (Table 46). The degree of endemism in fungi, molluscs and insects is also estimated to be over 80%, and as such, the Australian continent is recognised as a centre of endemism of global significance (Major 1988). While the level of endemism of many taxonomic groups is still unknown, it is likely to be high because of Australia's evolutionary and geological history.

Since the concept of endemism is tied to particular areas, the identification of centres of endemism is dependent on scale (Crisp et al. 2001). At a global level, high levels of species richness and endemism are consistent across most taxonomic groups in Australia and in most environments (e.g. reef and coral fishes; Table 48). Areas of high endemism also occur within regions in the Australian continent. For example, about 5% of Australia's flora occurs in the Stirling Ranges of south-west Australia, an isolated mountain range with some unique ecological characteristics. The high level of vascular plant endemism in this region is evident also at the global level. In a worldwide study, Myers (1988, 1990) identified 18 relatively small areas that are rich in endemic vascular plant species and that are experiencing relatively rapid rates of habitat modification or loss (Table 49). The only region in Australia on this list is the south-west of the continent. These 18 sites contain about 50 000 endemic plant species (20% of the world's total) in about 750 000 square kilometres (0.5% of the earth's surface area).

Table 48: A global comparison of the number of fish and coral species associated with coral reefs

Coral reef	No. of fish species	No. of coral species
Great Barrier Reef	2 000	500
New Caledonia	1 000	300
French Polynesia	800	168
Heron Island (Great Barrier Reef)	750	139
Society Islands	633	120
Toliara (Madagascar)	552	147
Aqaba	400	150
Moorea (Society Islands)	280	48
St Gilles (Runion)	258	120
Tutia Reef (Tanzania)	192	52
Tadjoura (Djibouti)	180	65
Baie Possession (Runion)	109	54
Kuwait	85	23
Hermitage (Runion)	81	30

Source: after Harmelin-Vivien (1989), in Banister (1992).

Table 49: Numbers of endemic plant species in 18 regions exhibiting high levels of plant species richness and endemism
Of the total, 14 regions may be classified as tropical rainforest, and four (italic) have Mediterranean type climates. Of these, the only region in Australia is found in the south-west of the continent.

Region	Numbers of endemic vascular plant species
Cape region (South Africa)	6 000
Upland west Amazonia	5 000
Atlantic coastal Brazil	5 000
Madagascar	4 900
Philippines	3 700
North Borneo	3 500
Eastern Himalaya	3 500
South-west Australia	2 830
Western Ecuador	2 500
Colombian Choc	2 500
Malaysian Peninsula	2 400
California	2 140
Western Ghats (India)	1 600
Central Chile	1 450
New Caledonia	1 400
Eastern Arc Mountains (Tanzania)	535
South-west Sri Lanka	500
South-west Cte d'Ivoire	200

Source: after Myers (1988, 1990) and Burgman and Lindenmayer (1998).

Several different patterns of endemism have been observed within the Australian biota. Cracraft (1991) identified 14 recognisable areas in Australia with a unique assemblage of bird species (see figure 4.16 of SoE 1996). Crisp et al. (2001) analysed the distribution patterns of around 8500 vascular plant species. Twelve centres of endemism, which were all near coastal, were identified. The lack of centres of endemism in inland Australia was attributed to the selective extinction of narrow endemics driven by extreme climates during the last glacial maximum.

Major centres of both plant endemism and diversity were also examined by Crisp et al. (2001). The regions that met both these criteria were south-west Australia, the Border Ranges between New South Wales and Queensland; the Wet Tropics near Cairns; Tasmania; and the Iron-McIlwraith Range of eastern Cape York Peninsula. The last centre appears to be more significant than recognised previously, and the Adelaide-Kangaroo Island region, which was also identified as important, has previously been overlooked altogether. It is important to have identified areas where high concentrations of species occur, so that they can be sympathetically managed.

Levels of endemism are also high for marine groups such as macroalgae, with southern Australia being of major significance (Zann 1995). Levels of endemism of other marine groups are described (see The conservation status of marine species). The 5500 km coastline from south-west Western Australia to the border between New South Wales and Victoria is particularly rich in brown algae and red algae. Of these two groups, around 57 and 75% of species are endemic to southern Australia. Recent studies of cave biota in Australia have also discovered high levels of endemism (see Wilkens et al. 2000).

Another measure of the uniqueness of Australia's biodiversity is the high level of variation in species richness among communities, and the variation in commonness and rarity among species, termed mosaic diversity. High values indicate complex landscapes with many environmental gradients, and many species with roughly equal abundance. Using this measure, the diversity of species and terrestrial ecosystems in Australia exceeds that of any other continent.

Vulnerable, endangered, threatened or extinct species [BD Indicator 10.7]

The differences between taxa in the percentages of threatened and extinct species reflect the biases in taxonomic and conservation focus (Table 50). Vertebrates (especially birds and mammals) and in general vascular plants receive much more attention than do invertebrates, non-vascular plants and fungi. This bias also appears in the records of other countries (Lawton & May 1995).

Table 50: Total number of endangered (EN), vulnerable (VU) and presumed extinct (PEX) species in 1993 and 2001
Species listed in 1993 are those under the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 and in 2001, under the EPBC Act.
Total number of threatened species, 1993, 1027; Endangered and Vulnerable, 2001, 1478

Taxon	EN (1993)	EN (2001)	VU (1993)	VU (2001)	PEX (1993)	PEX (2001)
Ecological communities	-	27	-	-	-	-
Fish	7	13	6	17	-	-
Amphibians	7	15	2	12	-	4
Invertebrates	-	-	-	4	-	-
Reptiles	6	11	15	38	-	-
Birds	26	33	25	61	20	23
Mammals	28	29	18	45	21	27
Non-vascular Plants	-	1	-	1	-	-
Vascular plants	226	517	661	654	74	63
Fungi	-	-	-	-	-	-
Total species	300	646	727	832	115	117

It appears that the number of nationally endangered and vulnerable species has increased in several groups over the last seven years (Table 50). In some instances, the numbers of species in these categories may change over time because there have been changes in the abundance or distribution of species. But in many cases, the changes are due to taxonomic revisions resulting in either the creation or loss of new species.

The status of species may also change based on new information without any underlying change in the number or distribution of individuals or in the processes affecting them. New observations result in a reassessment of area of occupancy, extent of occurrence, population size, threat status, trends in population size or other factors contributing to assessment of conservation status.

Plants

The most important change has been an increase in the number of endangered vascular plants. There were 226 endangered species on the official list in 1993, and 517 in 2001. Most of this is because the work on assessing threatened flora is continuing. Most additions are species that have never been assessed before, including some recently described taxa with very restricted distributions. However, there are some that are facing higher levels of threat than they were in 1993. The most important cause of changes in threat status that are not the result of new work or taxonomic revision over the last five years has been land clearance for urban and agricultural development.

As many as 123 species vascular plant species were presumed extinct in 1988 but the number was revised downwards subsequently, largely as a result of new information, survey work and taxonomic revision (Figure 43). A total of 227 vascular plant species have been considered at some time to be extinct. The first two Rare or Threatened Australian Plants (ROTAP database) lists share relatively few species with one another, or with any of the subsequent lists. The turnover in species on the list of presumed extinct plants has been substantial, varying by 10 to 40% of their constituent species, even during the 1990s when the total number of species presumed to be extinct did not change greatly. Most of the changes are due to taxonomic revision and survey work. Few reflect actual changes in status.

The number of presumed extinct vascular plants at the national level has fallen from 74 to 63 during 1993 to 2001 (Table 50). This has occurred as a result of taxonomic revision and rediscovery. Additional survey work is often prompted by the inclusion of species on the 'presumed extinct' list. There may be some further reduction over the next five years. There may be new additions as new species are described, data on plant abundances are revised, and surveys are conducted for rare and endangered flora (Figures 44 and 45).

Birds

The 2000 Action Plan for Australian Birds (Garnett & Crowley 2000) listed 25 bird taxa (reporting to the subspecies level) as extinct, 32 as critically endangered, 41 as endangered, 82 as vulnerable and 81 as near threatened. The remaining 1114 taxa are deemed to be least concern, including 28 introduced taxa and 95 vagrants. Of those taxa known to have been present or to have occurred regularly in Australia when Europeans settled in 1788, 1.9% are reported as extinct and a further 11.5% are considered threatened. Some 6.0% are near threatened. Since the last Action Plan in 1992, research and surveys have shown that seven taxa are less threatened than was thought but a further 56 taxa should have been listed. Other differences between the 1992 Action Plan and Garnett and Crowley (2000) are accounted for by changes to taxonomy (19 taxa), to more rigorous IUCN criteria, which better define the different categories (138 taxa) or both (11 taxa).

Using current knowledge, taxonomy and IUCN criteria, there has been a change in the status of 25 bird taxa (2.0%) over the eight years since the 1992 Bird Action Plan. For seven taxa, the conservation status can be downgraded as a result of effective conservation management: two from critically endangered to endangered, four from endangered to vulnerable and one from vulnerable to near threatened. However, the status of 18 taxa should be upgraded. Although no taxon has become extinct in the last decade, there has been a net increase of eight critically endangered taxa, with six fewer vulnerable and one more near threatened species.

Invertebrates

There are 281 species of Australian invertebrates listed on the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN 1996), representing fewer than 0.5% of known taxa. However, only four species are listed nationally in the EPBC Act. The first attempt to appraise an invertebrate group in Australia comprehensively is underway for butterflies. At a broader level, the draft Action Plan for Invertebrates aims to objectively assess the conservation status of invertebrates in Australia by using 25 species to illustrate the range of needs for this diverse group.

The conservation status of marine species [BD Indicator 10.7]

Knowledge of the conservation status of most of Australia's marine species is very limited. Australia's first endangered marine fish, the Spotted Handfish (Brachionichthys hirsutus), is endemic to the lower Derwent River estuary in Tasmania. The decline in Spotted Handfish numbers has been linked to decline in suitable spawning substrate due to overall deterioration in the health of the Derwent system and the effect of the introduced Northern Pacific Seastar (Asterias amurensis).

Scientific interest has largely centred on the higher vertebrates such as turtles, seabirds, seals, Dugongs and whales. Microorganisms, algae, invertebrates and fish have been generally neglected. Australia is very rich in macroalgae or seaweeds. Southern Australia has over 1150 species (Zann 1995). This is greater than 50% more than any comparable region in the world (see also Coasts and Oceans Report).

Fish species

Australia has an estimated 4000 to 4500 species of fish, of which around 3600 have been described (Zann 1995). About one-quarter of the species are endemic, most of which are found in the south. Although regulations governing many of the fished species have long existed in Australia, marine fish conservation is a relatively new field and the conservation status of most species is poorly known. Potentially vulnerable fish include sharks, which are slow growing, have a low reproduction rate, are highly migratory and form schools during the mating season. Threats are commercial and sports fisheries, and shark meshing of surfing beaches. Fish species with restricted distributions are also vulnerable, particularly from loss of habitat. Broad-scale studies of the distribution of coral reef fishes, conducted by the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), show that overfishing can rapidly deplete the stocks of coral reef fishes. Surveys of the density of Coral Trout on Bramble Reef during and after the reef was closed to fishing found that the population of legal size Coral Trout fell by 57% in just two months when the reef was reopened for fishing (Wachenfeld et al. 1998).

Sea snakes

Australia has about 30 of the total number of 50 species, about half of which are endemic (Zann 1995). The family of aipysurids live in coral reef waters and the family of hydrophiids live in the interreef waters of Australia's tropics. Sea snakes bear live young and have a relatively short lifespan; they reach sexual maturity in around three years, and live for some 10 years. The greatest human impact is from prawn trawling. Between 10 and 40% of sea snakes taken in trawls die once released (Barratt et al. 2001). For the past 20 years, trawled sea snakes have been used in a small leather industry. Licences limit the take of sea snakes for leather to 20 000 per year (Barratt et al. 2001).

Turtles

Unlike sea snakes, turtles are a long-lived group of reptiles that are slow to reach maturity. They may breed only around five times in their lives, making them extremely vulnerable to overexploitation and habitat destruction or modification (Zann 1995). Breeding migrations may cover hundreds to thousands of kilometres and many turtles breeding in Australia may live around the islands of Papua New Guinea, the south-west Pacific Islands and Indonesia (Figure 46), making habitat management and enforcement difficult. The main human effects that occur while turtles are in Australian waters are: mortality of subadults and adults in prawn trawls, shark nets, drumlines and gill nets, and in collisions with high speed vessels; hunting by Indigenous communities; habitat degradation; and predation on eggs by feral animals. The effects of disease and parasites are unknown.

Monitoring of turtles is essential to ensure that management practices are suitable to minimise or eliminate habitat degradation (Figures 47 and 48). In the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area most scientific studies of turtle populations have concentrated on Green and Loggerhead Turtles (Chelonia mydes and Caretta caretta respectively) (Wachenfeld et al. 1998). The Loggerhead is of specific concern as the number of nesting females has steadily declined since surveys began in the late 1970s. The east Australian population of Loggerhead Turtles used to represent the bulk of the South Pacific stock. If this population disappears, it will represent a highly significant loss (Wachenfeld et al. 1998). Because female turtles nest in the area where they were hatched, it is highly unlikely that a stock that has died out would be colonised naturally by Loggerhead Turtles elsewhere in the world.

Seabirds

About 142 species of seabirds belonging to 12 families are found in Australia and its external territories (Zann 1995). Of these, 76 species breed and spend their entire lives in the region, and 34 species are regular or occasional visitors. Problems for sea birds include illegal poaching of adults, chicks and eggs; mortality from bushfires and feral animals; incidental capture of albatrosses and other seabirds by longline fishing; clearing of habitats; decline in prey due to overfishing; and disturbances of nesting colonies by humans and low-flying aircraft (e.g. Wachenfeld et al. 1998; Barratt et al. 2001). Possibly half of Australia's nesting islands are subject to one or more of these direct human threats.

Dugongs

The tropical Dugong (Dugong dugon) is the only fully herbivorous marine mammal and the only Sirenian (sea cow) to occur in Australia (Zann 1995). It is extinct or near extinct in most of its former range which extended from East Africa to South-East Asia and the Western Pacific. Northern Australia has the last significant populations (estimated to be over 80 000) in the world. Large, long-lived mammals, Dugongs become sexually mature at around nine to 17 years and calve every three to seven years, making them vulnerable to excessive mortality. Management concerns include the potential for overhunting of some Torres Strait populations, death of individuals that are accidentally caught in fish gillnets and shark nets, and loss of seagrass habitat (Zann 1995; Wachenfeld et al. 1998).

Surveys of Dugongs have been undertaken across Queensland since the early 1980s. Surveys south of Cooktown have documented a distinct decline in population with the 1994 estimate being only 48% of that for 1986 to 1987. A major mortality of animals occurred in Hervey Bay (Qld) in 1992 following the die-off of seagrasses. The Dugong is listed by the IUCN as 'vulnerable to extinction' and is a listed marine species under the EPBC Act. A population of around 10 000 animals at Shark Bay in Western Australia is considered of major significance for the species.

Seals

Australia's seals were overhunted in the 1800s. They are now fully protected and some populations appear to be increasing, although marked long-term declines have been reported for other populations such as the Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina) on Macquarie Island which have been monitored for the last 50 years. In this instance, the cause of the decrease is unknown, although it is likely to be related to increased competition for food supplies.

An Action Plan has also been developed to encourage the long-term viability of seals. Major human threats include entanglement in fishing nets and ocean litter, oil pollution and disturbances by visitors. Fur seals are still occasionally illegally killed for lobster bait, and around fish farms for 'stealing' fish. Development of predator-resistant cages has reduced the latter problem. Entanglement in nets and plastic box straps remains a major threat. About 2% of seals at haul out or resting sites in Tasmania are entangled in net fragments and other plastic litter at any time (Barratt et al. 2001). A significant number of more badly tangled seals drown before reaching haul out sites. In 1990, an oil spill in Western Australia affected a number of New Zealand Fur Seal pups (Zann 1995).

Whales and dolphins

Gillnets, shark nets set off bathing beaches, discarded fishing nets, bioaccumulation of toxins and ingestion of plastic litter are considered threats to cetaceans (whales and dolphins) within Australia (Zann 1995). During the 1980s, almost 14 000 dolphins were drowned in Taiwanese shark gillnets off northern Australia but this fishery is now closed. The use of long driftnets (sometimes referred to as the 'walls of death'), which caused substantial mortalities of cetaceans, is now banned under the Convention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets in the South Pacific and the United Nations global moratorium on their use. However, many cetaceans are still caught in protective shark nets off bathing beaches. For example, around 520 dolphins were caught in shark nets off the coast of Queensland between 1967 and 1988 (Zann 1995).

During the period of industrial whaling (1948-1962), the estimated numbers of Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) fell dramatically. Whaling has been replaced by the new industry of whale watching, which can bring significant incomes to local economies. For example, in Victoria, Warrnambool's land-based whale-watching industry is estimated to contribute $17 million annually to the region. Because of concerns that boats, aircraft and divers may affect whale behaviour, regulations govern the distances that observers may approach whales. Increases in the estimated number of whale species such as the Humpback Whale in eastern Australian waters suggest that habitat conditions are sound (Figure 49 and 52). Numbers have shown a steady increase since regular monitoring began in 1981.

Recovery plans: Securing species and communities in the wild [BD Indicators 15.1 and 15.2]

Recovery plans set out the actions thought necessary to support the recovery of threatened species or ecological communities to maximise their chances of long-term survival in the wild.

There were 1478 species and 27 ecological communities listed under the EPBC Act in February 2001, as either endangered or vulnerable at the national level. The categories 'critically endangered', 'conservation dependant' and 'extinct in the wild' have been added to the previous categories of endangered, vulnerable and extinct for threatened species and 'critically endangered' and 'vulnerable' have been added to the previous category of endangered for ecological communities. When approved by government Ministers, recovery plans become statutory documents. Furthermore, the EPBC Act prohibits Commonwealth agencies from undertaking activities that are inconsistent with a recovery plan.

As of May 2000, there were 37 adopted recovery plans in place under the EPBC Act (Table 51) covering 44 species, 18 of which are plants. This means that around 3% of nationally listed species and communities have recovery plans. In early 2001, another 100 recovery plans, covering in excess of 130 species were being considered for adoption by the Threatened Species Scientific Committee. State and territory governments also prepare recovery plans under their legislation, but documenting these plans was beyond the scope of this report.

Table 51: The number of recovery plans for species and ecological communities threatened with extinction
Species and communities are those listed under the EPBC Act as either endangered or vulnerable compared with the number of species and communities so classified, as at May 2000.

Species group	No. of adopted recovery plans for listed threatened species	No. of species/ ecological communities covered by the recovery plans	No. of species/ ecological communities in each group classified as threatened	Threatened species in each group covered by a Recovery Plan (%)
Fish	2	5	30	16.7
Amphibians	1	2	27	7.4
Invertebrates	-	-	-	-
Reptiles	2	2	49	4.0
Birds	12	12	94	12.8
Mammals	5	5	74	6.7
Non-vascular plants	-	-	2	0
Vascular plants	15	18	1165	1.5
Total species	37	44	1441	3
Ecological communities	-	23	23	100

Source: Regional Wildlife Programs, Wildlife Branch, Environment Australia.

There are many more plans in preparation, many without any funding support from the ESP. The amount of funding provided for the implementation of recovery plans, compared with the amount specified in the plans for full implementation, is provided in Table 52 for the Commonwealth level. This information relates to recovery plans funded through the ESP for species listed in the (now repealed) Endangered Species Act 1992. The total cost of implementation of the adopted plans from all sponsors comes to $25 015 105, of which the ESP provided $8 832 275, about 35% of the total cost. In order to be recognised under the EPBC Act, recovery plans have to be resubmitted.

Table 52: The amount of funding provided for the implementation of recovery plans under the (repealed) Endangered Species Act 1992 (Cwlth) compared with the amount specified in the plans for full implementation
There are donor sources that supply funding for the implementation of recovery plans (Commonwealth, state & local governments, NGOs, local community, and others).
Endangered Species Program (ESP) $ does not include funding provided under the Threatened Species Network Community Grants Program.
Figures are extracted from Program Administrator database and are subject to the accuracy of the information included in the database.

Adopted recovery plans (37 plans covering 44 species)	Period of plan	Total cost of implementation of adopted plan (all sponsors) ($)	ESP $ provided for species	Period of ESP funding
Animals
Abbott's Booby	1998-2002	140 000	57 000	1993-94 to 1995-96
Black-eared Miner	1997-2001	2 089 200	219 000	1991-92 to 1999-00
Central Rock-rat	2000-2001	608 900	181 646	1989-90 to 1999-00
Christmas Island Shrew	1997-2002	129 000	22 700	1996-97 to 1998-99
Chuditch	1992-2001	1 452 400	682 800	1991-92 to 1998-99
Forty-spotted Pardalote	1991-1996	322 500	271 650	1991-92 to 1995-96
Glossy Black Cockatoo (SA spp.)	1999-2003	1 192 300	648 800	1992-93 to 1999-00
Golden-shouldered Parrot	1999-2002	256 000	200 800	1993-94 to 1997-98
Gouldian Finch	1998-2002	1 065 600	770 000	1992-93 to 1999-00
Helmeted Honeyeater	1999-2003	1 675 600	495 000	1992-93 to 1999-00
Leadbeaters Possum	1997-2001	1 211 000	329 500	1993-94 to 1999-00
Noisy Scrub Bird	1993-2002	2 540 400	405 940	1992-93 to 1999-00
Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat	1998-2002	1 789 600	819 422	1991-92 to 1999-00
Orange-bellied Parrot	1991-1996	496 300	752 630	1989-90 to 1999-00
Regent Honeyeater	1999-2003	2 116 000	635 900	1993-94 to 1999-00
Spotted Handfish	1999-2001	1 086 300	358 291	1995-96 to 1999-00
Striped Legless Lizard	1999-2003	1 119 800	-	-
Swift Parrot	1997-1999	620 700	486 636	1991-92 to 1998-99
Tasmanian Galaxiid Species (4 species)	1997-2002	711 300	422 610	1989-90 to 1999-00
Wedge-tailed Eagle (Tas. spp.)	1998-2003	465 900	238 726	1991-92 to 1999-00
Western Swamp Tortoise	1998-2002	968 600	450 470	1989-90 to 1999-00
White and Orange Bellied Frog	1992-2001	343 100	224 700	1991-92 to 1995-96
Plants
Acacia pharangites	1999-2002	65 500	-	-
Alectryon ramiflorus	1998-2001	265 000	48 614	1994-95 to 1998-99
Banksia cuneata	1992-2001	253 000	170 200	1992-93 to 1998-99
Barbarea australis	1998-2002	202 449	15 548	1992-93 to 1998-99
Cyphanthera odgersii ssp. occidentalis	1999-2002	109 550	-	-
Eucalyptus rhodantha	1992-2001	356 800	175 900	1991-92 to 1998-99
Persoonia nutans	1997-2002	21 995	21 400	1992-93 to 1995-96
Pimelia spicata	1993-1997	141 560	108 130	1992-93 to 1996-97
Ranunculus prasinus	1992-2000	8 766	7 595	1991-92 to 1995-96
Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides	1993-2000	437 700	33 000	1992-93 to 1993-94
Spyridium obcordatum	1991-1993	20 885	-	-
Stylidium coroniforme	1992-2001	125 000	63 500	1991-92 to 1996-97
Tasmanian Lowland Euphrasia species (4 species)	1997-2001	172 800	140 967	1993-94 to 1998-99
Wollemia nobilis	1997-2001	398 600	-	-
Zieria prostrata	1998-2001	35 000	22 000	1991-92 to 1996-97

Source: Regional Wildlife Programs, Wildlife Branch, Environment Australia. Data currency: May 2000.

Looking after species away from their homes [BD Indicators 16.1 and 16.2]

As part of the recovery process for threatened species, zoos and herbaria have been refining the processes through which they manage captive populations. Although managing species in the wild is preferred, sometimes it is necessary to manage them ex situ (away from their homes). Usually this is required to increase the number of individuals by breeding them in captivity and releasing them into the wild when conditions are suitable. Considerable human and financial resources have been expended on ex situ conservation for threatened species (e.g. see the Mala recovery programs and Mala dreaming box below).

Table 53 lists threatened species under the EPBC Act that are subject to ex situ programs of the major botanical gardens and zoos, and wildlife parks in Australia. Many of these programs involve research aimed at maintaining, breeding and propagating populations in the zoos and botanic gardens for release back into the wild. Ex situ research is defined as research using captive animals that aims to assist with sustaining and establishing the captive population. Ex situ programs were recorded for 86 species.

Table 53: Threatened species (listed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999) for which there are ex situ programs in Australian zoos and botanical gardens to breed populations in captivity 

Common name	Species name	InstitutionA	No. in captivity	ReleaseB	Ex situ research	National Threat StatusC
Fauna
Black-eared Miner	Manorina melanotis	AZ ZPGB-V	UND UN	UN 0	Yes Yes	EN
Black-flanked Rock-wallaby	Petrogale lateralis lateralis	ZPGB-V	UN	0	Yes	VU
Broad-headed Snake	Hoplocephalus bungaroides	ARP	c. 8	0	No	VU
Bridled Nailtail Wallaby	Onychogalea fraenata	QPWS ES	UN UN	Yes UN	Yes No	EN
Carpentarian Rock Rat	Zyzomys palatalis	TWP	UN	0	No	EN
Chuditch	Dasyurus geoffroii	PZ	UN	302E	Yes	VU
Dibbler	Parantechinus apicalis	PZ	UN	86F	Yes	EN
Eastern Barred Bandicoot	Perameles gunnii	ZPGB-V	UN	400	Yes	EN
False Water Rat	Xeromys myoides	TWP	UN	0	No	VU
Fleay's Barred Frog	Mixophyes fleayi	QPWS	UN	0	Yes	EN
Giant Burrowing Frog	Heleioporus australiacus	ARP	2	0	No	VU
Golden-backed Tree Rat	Mesembriomys macruus	TWP	UN	0	No	VU
Golden Bandicoot	Isoodon auratus arnhemensis	TWP	UN	0	No	VU
Greater Bilby	Macrotis lagotis	ES MZP QPWS TWP	UN UN UN UN	UN Yes 0 Yes	No No No No	VU
Greater Stick-nest Rat	Leporillus conditor	PZ ES MZP	UN UN UN	0 UN 0G	Yes No No	VU
Green and Golden Bell Frog	Litorea aurea	ARP	c. 20	0	Yes	VU
Helmeted Honeyeater	Lichenostomus melanops cassidix	ZPGB-V	UN	34	Yes	EN
Julia Creek Dunnart	Sminthopsis douglasi	QPWS	UN	0	Yes	EN
Lancelin Island Skinks	Ctenotus lancelini	PZ	UN	0	Yes	VU
Leadbeaters Possum	Gymnobelideus leadbeateri	ZPGB-V	UN	0	Yes	EN
Long-footed Potoroo	Potorous longipes	ZPGB-V	UN	0	Yes	EN
Long-nosed Potoroo	Potorous tridactylus tridactylus	ES	UN	UN	No	VU
Mala	Lagorchestes hirsutus	MZP	UN	0	No	EN
Mallee Fowl	Leipoa ocellata	AZ, MZP	UN	0	No	VU
Mountain Pygmy Possum	Burramys parvus	ZPGB-V	UN	0	Yes	EN
Mulgara	Dasycercus cristicauda	TWP	UN	0	No	VU
Northern Bettong	Bettongia tropica	QPWS	UN	0	Yes	EN
Numbat	Myrmecobius fasciatus	ES PZ	UN UN	UN 42H	No Yes	VU
Orange Bellied Parrot	Neophema chrysogaster	AZ ZPGB-V	2 breeding pairs UN	0 28	No Yes	EN
Partridge Pigeon (eastern)	Genophaps smithii smithii	TWP	UN	0	No	VU
Plains Rat	Pseudomys australis	ES	UN	UN	No	VU
Proserpine Rock-wallaby	Petrogale persephone	QPWS	UN	Yes	Yes	EN
Regent Honeyeater	Xanthomyza phrygia	AZ, GWP	UN	0		EN
Southern Brown Bandicoot	Isoodon obesulus	ES	UN	UN	No	VU
Striped Legless Lizard	Delma impar	ZPGB-V	UN	UN	Yes	VU
Stuttering Frog	Mixophyes balbus	ARP	2	0	Yes	VU
Tammar Wallaby	Macropus eugenii eugenii	AZ ES	UN UN	0 UN	No No	EX (SA)
Western Swamp Tortoise	Pseudemydura umbrina	PZ	>150	247E	Yes	EN
Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby	Petrogale xanthopus	ES AZ, MZP	UN 48	UN Yes	No Yes	VU
Total fauna: 41 species out of a total of 332 threatened species (EX, VU or EN) = 12.4 %
Flora
-	Allocasuarina portuensis	RBGS	UN	Yes	Yes	EN
-	Eucalyptus copulans	RBGS	UN	0	Yes	EN
Adamson's Blown-grass	Agrostis adamsonii	RMBG	UN	c. 100	Yes	EN
Anglesea Grevillea	Grevillea infecunda	RMBG	UN	0	No	VU
Basalt Diuris Orchid	Diuris basaltica	RMBG	UN	0	Yes	EN
Border heath	Epacris limbata	TDPIWE	10	0	No	VU
Concave Pomaderris	Pomaderris subplicata	RMBG	UN	c. 80	Yes	VU
Cotoneaster Pomaderris	Pomaderris cotoneaster	RMBG	UN	0	No	EN
Davies' Wax-flower	Phebalium daviesii	TDPIWE	UN	Yes	No	EN
Drapetes	Kelleria laxa	RMBG	UN	0	No	VU
Dwarf Kerrawang	Rulingia prostrata	RMBG	UN	0	Yes	EN
Echidna Wattle	Acacia cretacea	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Elegant Spider-orchid	Caladenia formosa	RMBG	UN	0	No	VU
Glandular Phebalium	Phebalium glandulosum	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	VU
Glenelg Pomaderris	Pomaderris halmaturina	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	VU
Gorae Leek Orchid	Prasophyllum diversiflorum	RMBG	UN	0	No	EN
Grampians Pincushion-lily	Borya mirabilis	RMBG	UN	0		EN
Kings Lomatia	Lomatia tasmanica	TDPIWE	2	0	Yes	EN
Lowan Phebalium	Phebalium lowanense	RMBG	UN	0	Yes	VU
Marble Daisy-bush	Olearia astroloba	RMBG	UN	0	No	VU
Menzels Wattle	Acacia pinguifolia	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Monarto Mintbush	Prostanthera eurybioides	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Moresby Range Drummondita	Dodonaea subglandulifera	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Mountain Correa	Correa lawrenciana var. genoensis	RMBG	UN	10	Yes	EN
Mt William Grevillea	Grevillea williamsonii	RMBG	UN	0	Yes	EN
Mueller Daisy	Brachyscome muelleri	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Prickly Raspwort	Haloragis eyreana	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Rigid Spider-orchid	Caladenia tensa	RMBG	UN	0	No	EN
Rosella Spider-orchid	Caladenia rosella	RMBG	UN	0	Yes	EN
Saltbush	Ballantinia antipoda	RMBG	UN	0	No	EN
Sandhill Greenhood	Pterostylis arenicola	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	VU
Small Scurf-pea	Cullen parvum	RMBG	UN	0	No	EN
Small-flowered Daisy-bush	Olearia microdisca	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Somersby Mintbush	Prostanthera junonis	RBGS	UN	0	Yes	EN
Spreading Phebalium	Phebalium brachyphyllum	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Stiff Groundsel	Senecio behrianus	RMBG	UN	0	No	EN
Stuart's Heath	Epacris stuartii	TDPIWE	400	Yes	No	EN
Sunshine Diuris Orchid	Diuris fragrantissima	RMBG	UN	Yes	Yes	EN
Superb Greenhood	Pterostylis cucullata	RMBG	UN	0	No	VU
Tall Astelia	Astelia australiana	RMBG	UN	0	No	VU
Trailing Willow-herb	Epacris barbata	TDPIWE	10	0	No	EN
Tufted Bush-pea	Pultenaea trichophylla	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	VU
Whibley Wattle	Acacia whibleyana	PBC	UN	UN	Yes	EN
Whipstick Westringia	Westringia crassifolia	RMBG	UN	0	Yes	EN
Wollemi Pine	Wollemia nobilis	RBGS	UN	0	Yes	EN
Total Flora: 45 species out of a total of 1236 threatened species (EX, VU or EN) = 3.6 %

^AAZ, Adelaide Zoo; ZPGB-V, Zoological Parks and Gardens Board, Victoria (includes Melbourne Zoo, Healesville Sanctuary and Victoria's Open Range Zoo, Werribee); QPWS, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service; ES, Earth Sanctuaries; ARP, Australian Reptile Park; TWP, Territory Wildlife Park; PZ, Perth Zoo; 1990-2000; 1997-2000; No longer released since overall recovery objectives achieved; WPZ-D, Western Plains Zoo (Dubbo); 1993-2000; GWP, Gorge Wildlife Park; UN, unknown;RBGS, Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney (includes Mount Annan Botanic Gardens); RMBG, Royal Melbourne Botanic Gardens; TDPIWE, Tasmania Department of Primary Industries, Wildlife and Environment; PBC, Plant Biodiversity Centre, South Australian Department of Environment and Heritage;
^BRelease back to wild or to predator controlled sites, 1990-2000 (unless otherwise stated) and number released where provided by institution;
^CNational Threat Status (see Table 50);
^DUN, unknown;^E1990-2000;^F1997-2000; ^GNo longer released since overall recovery objectives achieved; ^H1993-2000.

Craig et al. (1998) provided some material on the release of captive-bred animals from zoo programs. Of the 19 programs that explicitly recognised the process by which zoos cooperate with wildlife agencies as part of an overall recovery plan, captive breeding for release into the wild is an explicit goal of 16 recovery programs. The recovery program for the Mala, an endangered species with particular importance for Indigenous people in central Australia (see Mala recovery programs and Mala Dreaming), illustrates the complex nature of these activities. Predation by feral cats and foxes pose a major threat to species when they are released into the wild and major programs such as the Western Shield (see Managing introduced species) aim to reduce their numbers before native species are released into the wild.

Species of economic importance [BD Indicator 10.8]

The values of biodiversity discussed at the beginning of this report included economic values. The economic value of some native species or suites of species is well enough known, as there are recognised economic activities and products traded in markets. These include major industries such as fisheries and forestry, which are based largely on wild populations. The wildflower, bushfood and cut foliage industries involve numerous native species (Table 54). Perhaps less obvious is the use of spiders and snakes for their venom and the harvesting of sea cucumbers - an animal that is considered a delicacy in Asian countries. Seahorses are also harvested from the wild, being primarily used as Chinese medicines, aphrodisiacs and food, although the market for curios and aquarium fish is growing steadily. Tropical species of seahorse are endangered as a result of wild harvesting. A company in Tasmania is planning to supply this market by farming temperate species. The species used is proving suitable for aquaculture and the venture is on the point of commercial production.

Table 54: Permits issued to pick or sell native flora in New South Wales, 1998 to 1999
Also includes some species listed in the permit data.

Species	No. of stems licensed to pick or sell
Actinotus helianthi	14 320
Adiantum spp.	778
Archontophoenix cunninghamiana	1 000
Asplenium nidus	10 925
Asplenium flactum	50
Blandfordia spp.	1 160
Boronia spp.	220
Bulbophyllum spp.	190
Calanthe triplicata	25
Casuarina cunninghamiana	<5kg seed
Caustis spp.	400A
Cyathea spp.	10 328
Cymbidium spp.	20
Davallia pyxidata	28
Dendrobium spp.	6 464
Dicksonia spp.	2 968
Dipodium spp.	20
Doryanthes spp.	665
Eriostemon spp.	1 210
Galeola spp.	20
Geodorum pictum	20
Liparis spp.	20
Livistona australis	4 550
Lomatia silaifolia	250
Oberonia spp.	20
Papillilabium beckleri	20
Parasarcochilus spp.	20
Peristeranthus hillii	20
Persoonia pinifolia	80
Phreatia spp.	20
Platycerium spp.	7 675
Restio tetraphyllus	450
Rhinerrhiza divitiflora	70
Sarcochilus spp.	753
Taeniophyllum spp.	20
Telopea spp.	31 150
Unspecified numbers of:
Ceratopetalum gummiferum
Crowea spp.
Lycopodium deuterodensum
Sprengelia incarnata
Todea barbara
Xylomelum spp.

^ABunches.

Any attempt to assess the economic significance of biodiversity is complicated by two factors. First, many values of biodiversity are not traded in markets. Thus, new and often contested valuation methods must be used to estimate the financial value of biodiversity. This difficulty is encapsulated by the example of a valuation of use of an Australian national park, where one critic claimed the original estimate was four times too large and another claimed it was six times too small (Beal 1998). Second, many biodiversity-based industries are recent and small and thus often do not have well-developed information systems. Third, biodiversity is the classic 'cross-sectoral' issue, so that expenditure or economic activity across a wide range of commercial sectors and policy portfolios affects or is affected by biodiversity.

Assigning a dollar value to biodiversity

Although there is considerable and increasing activity that gains economic benefits from native species, few empirical data are available. Consequently, the following examples are indicative only. To give at least a lower estimate of the dollar value of biodiversity, these examples are also summarised in Table 55.

Table 55: The dollar value of biodiversity: A selection of species of economic importance that are referred to in the text, excluding fish 
Dollars values ($A) are in millions, except for the value of individual pets.

Category of use	Species common name	Scientific name	Details	Estimated value in A$ million (national turnover of industry, unless otherwise stated)
Animal products
Meat/skin/hide/ feathers	Kangaroo	Including: Macropus rufus, M. giganteus, M. robustus, and M. fuliginosus	Skins, leather, game meat and pet food	445 (1998)
	Emu	Dromaius novaehollandiae	Oil, feathers, skin, meat	7 (1998)
	Freshwater Eel	Anguilla spp.	Meat	5 (2000)
	Brushtail Possum	Trichosurus vulpecula	Harvested commercially for skins and meat only in Tas. where they are larger and have denser fur	5 (1998)
	Crocodile	Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus johnstoni	Meat, leather	3 (1998)
	Yabbies	Cherax spp.		2.1 (1997)
	Bennett's Wallaby	Macropus rufogriseus	Primarily sold as pet food in Tasmania	0.75 (1999)
	Muttonbird/Short tailed Shearwater	Puffinus tenuirostris	Oil, feathers, skin, meat	0.43 (1998)
Dried food product	Jellyfish	Catoctylus mosaicus		Unknown
	Sea cucumber, bche de mer	Family Holothuroidea		Unknown
	Seahorse	Hippocampus spp.	Food and Chinese medicines	Unknown
Venom			Venom, purified toxins, antibodies to toxins, and blood snake serums	Unknown
	Redback Spider	Latrodectus hasselti
	Snake	Serpentes spp.
	Sydney Funnel Web Spider	Atrax robustus
	White tailed Spider	Lampona cylindrata
Plant products
Essential oils				20 (1998)
	Blue Mallee	Eucalyptus polybractea	Eucalyptus oil used as a food flavouring, perfume, inhalent and solvent.
	Boronia	Boronia megastigma	Boronia oil used as a fragrance
	Tasmanian Mountain Pepper	Tasmania lanceolata	Oil exported to Japan for use in chocolates, toothpaste and chewing gum
	Tea tree	Melaleuca alternifolia	Tea tree oil used for its antiseptic and antifungal properties
Alkaloid extracts	Corkwood	Duboisia spp.	Used for a number of medical purposes, including as a muscle relaxant and as a depressant	3.8 (gross value of industry, 1991 92)
Tannins	Black Wattle	Acacia mearnsii	Tanning agent in leather manufacture	Unknown
Wildflowers	Kangaroo Paw,Wax Flowers & Grampians Thryptomene	Anigozanthus spp Chamelaucium spp. and Thryptomene calycina	Listed are the three top export species (see Table 6.20 for native species harvested in WA)	30 (1998)
Bushfoods	Bush Tomato	Solanum centrale	Fruit	14 (1998)
	Lemon Aspera	Acronychia acidula	Fruit
	Lemon Myrtle	Backhousia citriodora	Leaf and oil
	Tasmanian Mountain Pepper	Tasmannia lanceolata	Leaves and berries
	Muntries	Kunzea pomifera	Fruit
	Quandong	Santalum acuminatum	Fruit
	Warrigal Greens	Tetragonia tetragonoides	Salad vegetable
	Wattle	Acacia spp.	Flavouring in desserts, ground wattleseed used in pastries and breads
Agricultural production	Macadamia	Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla.	Nuts and oil	26.6 (gross value of industry, 1991 92)
Building material and fibre	Broombush	Melaleuca uncinata	Brush fencing	Unknown
	Seagrass	Zostera spp.	Beach cast material is used as house insulation and garden mulch	Unknown
	Sphagnum Moss	Sphagnum spp .	Potting mix	Unknown
Kelp derived products	Kelp	Phaeophyta spp.	Human food, food and cosmetic manufacture (thickeners and emulsifiers), agriculture (fertilisers and growth promoters) and biomedicines.	Unknown
Ornamental
Pearls	Giant Australian Oyster	Pinctada maxima		200 (1998)
Shells			Specimen collections. Only a few mollusc species, of the total of 12 000, are exempt from collection	Unknown
Other
Tourism	Koala	Phascolarctos cinereus	'Koala industry' includes visiting zoos and wildlife parks, accommodation, photographs	336 (1998)
	Fairy Penguin	Eudyptula minor	Penguin Parade at Phillip Island, Vic.	96.5 (for Victoria, 1998)
	Whale	Cetaceans	Whale watching	17 (Victoria, 2001)
	Crocodile	Crocodylus porosus	Crocodile cruises on Adelaide River, NT	2 (1998)
Hunting	Duck and Quail			36 (1998)
Whole plants
Native nursery plants			Some 1 600 native species available in the nursery trade	Unknown
	Soft Tree Fern	Dicksonia antarctica	Plantation and legally harvested plants sold by nurseries and retail outlets for landscaping	1 (estimated value of export market, 2000)
Fodder crops	Golden Wreath Wattle	Acacia saligna		Unknown
	Old Man Saltbush and River Saltbush	Atriplex nummularia and A. amnicola		Unknown
Live animals
Pet birds				The following prices are for individual animals sold in Australia (1997)
	Red tail Black Cockatoo	Calyptorhynchus magnificus		1 750
	Gang gang Cockatoo	Callocephalon fimbriatum		500
	Major Mitchell Cockatoo	Cacatua leadbeateri		350
	Cloncurry Parrot	Barnardius barnardius macgillivrayi		175
	Sulphur crested Cockatoo	Cacatua galerita		60
	Hooded Parrot	Psephotus dissimilis		50
	Princess Parrot	Polytelis alexandrae		50
	Eastern Rosella	Platycercus eximius		30
	Galah	Cacatua roseicapilla		30
	Turquoise Parrot	Neophema pulchella		15
	Red rumped Parrot	Psephotus haematonotus		12
	Cockatiel	Nymphicus hollandicus		10
Pet reptiles	Green Tree Phython	Chondropython viridis		2 300
	Spiny tailed Monitor	Varanus acanthurus		550
	Goulds Monitor	Varanus gouldii		450
	Carpet Python	Morelia spilota variegata		200
	Cunninghams Skink	Egernia cunninghami		80
	Blue Tongue Lizard	Tiliqua scincoides		40
	Long necked Tortoise	Chelodina longicollis		40
	Bearded Dragon	Pogona vitticeps		35
Earth sanctuaries			Threatened species are protected and bred within feral proof sanctuaries. The sanctuaries provide for ecotourism	1.1 Total market and economic value, 1999
	Bilby	Macrotis lagotis
	Boodie	Bettongia lesueur
	Bridled Nailtail Wallaby	Onychogalea fraenata
	Eastern Quoll	Dasyurus viverrinus
	Long nosed Potoroo	Potorous tridactylus tridactylus
	Numbat	Myrmecobius fasciatus
	Platypus	Ornithorhynchus anatinus
	Red necked Pademelon	Thylogale thetis
	Rufous Bettong	Aepyprymnus rufescens
	Southern Brown Bandicoot	Isoodon obesulus
	Southern Hairy nosed Wombat	Lasiorhinus latifrons
	Sticknest Rat	Leporillus conditor
	Tammar Wallaby	Macropus eugenii
	Woylie/Brush tailed Bettong	Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi
	Yellow footed Rock wallaby	Petrogale xanthopus

Source: Australian Senate (1998); Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service (1998); Tasmania, DPIWE (1999); Parliament of Victoria (2000).

Commercial fisheries

Commercial fisheries in Australia depend largely on wild caught species, supported an estimated production value of $1.8 billion in 1998-99 (ABARE 1999). The oyster industry, based on the Giant Australian Oyster (Pinctada maxima) produces exports of some $200 million per year. There is major scope for commercial production of some native fish species for human consumption, such as Silver Perch (Bidyanus bidyanus), Murray Cod (Maccullochella peelii), Snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) and Mulloway (Johnius antarctica). Freshwater eels (Anguilla spp.), which have a poorly understood breeding migration to offshore waters (possibly in the Coral Sea), support an industry of about $5 million per year and are increasingly 'ranched', with harvested young raised in captivity. It is likely that the total economic value of recreational fisheries, again largely based on native species, exceeds that of commercial fisheries when ancillary activity (e.g. boats, fuel, accommodation) is accounted for.

Forests and fodder

Woodchips from native forests had a value in 1998-99 of $590 million. While this is only one category of forestry production in economic terms, it is a particularly significant one and known to be sourced from native forests rather than exotic plantations. Significant pastoral industries in drier areas in Australia depend on pasture provided by native shrub, grass and forb species. For example, 7% of Australia's beef cattle are found in the Northern Territory, and these depend largely on native pastures. To give some estimate of this value, between 1983 and 1984, the value of native pasture support industries in Queensland was calculated as $1125 million per year. There are increasing efforts to re-establish useful native shrub species for fodder and land degradation control (e.g. Old Man Saltbush, Atriplex nummularia, in western New South Wales).

Growing and harvesting native plant species

The ABS (ABS 1999a) used the annual service costs of maintaining a garden with native plants as the basis for estimating households' expenditure towards 'protection of biodiversity and landscape'. The result was an estimate of $169 million in 1996-97, which reflects a growing use of native species for ornamental purposes. Australian wildflower exports in 1997 were valued at $30 million and the 'bushfood' industry was expected to grow from $14 million in 1996 to over $100 million in 2000. There are no data on the value of the native species component of the nursery industry, but some 1600 species are grown and traded (Parliament of Victoria 2000).

Native animal species (meat, skin and hides)

Duck and quail hunting (recreational) in Victoria is estimated to involve over $30 million expenditure each year. The kangaroo industry is estimated to support 4000 jobs in rural areas, and the value of the industry is about $245 million per year; the emerging Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae ) industry is smaller at $6-8 million per year. In Tasmania, the Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) harvest has an annual value of $400 000, the Muttonbird (Puffinus spp.) harvest $425 000 and Bennett's Wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus), $750 000 (DPIWE 1999). An increasing number of possums are exported for human consumption in China as a 'warming meat'.

In many such industries, there is considered to be scope for greater economic value through increased processing, niche products, expansion of cultivation rather than harvesting, or greater use for human consumption (e.g. much kangaroo meat is used for pet food, and much leather remains unused). Again, different values will define different attitudes to the expansion of such industries. Some biodiversity-based industries now coordinated by industry organisations are more organised towards both sustainable practices and value-adding and export. These include the Kangaroo Industry Association and the Southern Bushfoods Association.

Live animal species

Another indication of the economic value of Australian species is the prices paid for single specimens for companion animals. Red-tailed Black Cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus magnificus), one of the few bird species subject to a managed harvest for export (from NT), can fetch $8000 to $9000 per animal, the same as a Gang-Gang Cockatoo (Callocephalon fimbriatum). Sulfur-crested Cockatoos (Cacatua galerita) and Galahs (Cacatua roseicapilla) can fetch over $1000 each, as can a native Green Tree Python (Chondropython viridis) or a Spiny-tailed Monitor (Varanus acanthurus) in other countries. This trade is small, and beset with problems of legality and whether this is an acceptable or appropriate use of biodiversity.

Some argue that if wild populations have a commercial value, landholders are encouraged to improve the resources they depend on and that a carefully regulated industry could increase the distribution and numbers of wild species. Earth Sanctuaries Limited has put an 'economic value' on a range of vertebrate species and includes $3.8 million for Australian fauna on its balance sheet. For example, the 130 individuals of Numbat owned and managed by the company are valued at $650 000. The Productivity Commission has recently undertaken a study of creating markets for biodiversity resources and services that focuses on Earth Sanctuaries.

In Western Australia, Fund for Wild Australia, a privately owned non-profit organisation, is also developing a series of wildlife exclosures to protect endangered mammal species, although this enterprise is not listed on the stock exchange. The World Wildlife Fund for Nature argues that while well-managed predator exclosures can contribute to the conservation of certain species, their benefits should not be exaggerated. They should be seen as just one of the tools available to help protect endangered animal species.

Tourism

Other species are clearly of economic significance but this is more difficult to estimate. Tourism provides an example. Hundloe and Hamilton (1997) estimated that the koala is worth $1.1 billion per year through its iconic role in attracting international tourists to Australia, and that in the absence of Australia's unique wildlife, there would have been a loss of $1.8 billion in tourism revenue in 1996 (rising to $2.5 billion in 2000). Surveys of international tourists indicate that a major proportion identify nature-based factors such as wildlife and national parks as a motivation for their visit. Many remote communities are increasingly dependent on income from small-scale 'ecotourism' ventures.

Although the contribution of particular elements of biodiversity to the attractiveness or allure of, say, a national park is difficult to measure precisely, it is fundamental. Valuations reported in Bennett et al. (1996) provided some idea of the local and regional benefits of protected areas. The annual economic value of Dorrigo and Gibraltar Range National Parks in New South Wales was $5.4 million and $800 000, respectively. Such figures and associated employment can be highly significant in rural areas. Biodiversity in protected areas is obviously crucial to the tourism industry, both domestic and international. Some indicative economic values from Victoria are: nature-based tourism in the Grampians region, $100 million annually; and the Penguin Parade Reserve, $96.5 million in 1995-96 and over 1000 jobs (Parliament of Victoria 2000). Visitation to national parks and reserves in Victoria grew from 8 to 25 million per year between the late 1980s and late 1990s.

Bioprospecting

Bioprospecting (the chemical prospecting for pharmaceuticals in natural organisms) is a growing industry in Australia, with potential in both terrestrial and aquatic environments (see Bioprospecting). If managed appropriately, bioprospecting has the potential to have minimal impact, as modern screening methodologies and analytical instruments permit the identification of biologically active compounds from fairly small samples (Benkendorff 2001). Another area of clear future significance is the potential economic value of native genetic resources. The ability to capture new biotechnological benefits will rely on maintaining biodiversity in its natural environment because the exploitation of metabolites usually depends on observing the interactions between organisms in their natural environment (Battershill & EvansIllidge 2000).

Ecosystem services

Such estimates of particular economic contributions from biodiversity only go some way towards providing measurement of the total value of biodiversity. For example, although the $300 million-plus Australian honey industry is based on introduced bees, these bees depend greatly on native plant species for pollen and nectar. The value to agriculture of 'pollination services' by native insects as well as honeybees is likely to be worth significantly more than this.

The actual economic and social value of 'ecosystem services' (indirect utilitarian values) is often difficult to calculate. For example, the role of soil organisms in maintaining agricultural production is both poorly known and of obvious economic significance. However, the service values of ecosystems can be highlighted when they become degraded to the point that the economics of restoration are measured in dollar terms. In the mid-1990s the treatment of land degradation in Australia, for example, had direct costs of more than $400 million per year, including treatment for waterlogging, salinity and erosion. More recent estimates by the Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF) and National Farmers Federation have put the annual cost of degradation in rural landscapes at a minimum of $2 billion, which is predicted to increase to over $6 billion annually by 2020 if no action is taken (Madden et al. 2000). The recently released report Coordinating Catchment Management (from the bipartisan House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage) recommended that a National Environment Levy be put in place for the next 25 years to help fund programs to address these issues.

Carbon and biodiversity credits, while still in their infancy, propose to calculate specific dollar values on elements of biodiversity so they can be traded on domestic and international markets. Interest has increased in valuation of non-traded ecological services and assets, especially in the wake of a global study that estimated the economic value of 17 ecosystem services across 16 biomes as between US$16 to 54 trillion (10¹²) per year, with an average of US$33 trillion per year (Costanza et al. 1997). This valuation was, in turn, used to estimate an average value in 1997 for terrestrial Australian ecosystems of US$245 billion per year and for marine ecosystems of US$640 billion per year (Jones & Pittock 1997). Whether such valuations will, first, develop widely accepted methodologies and, second, ever become used routinely in decision making and biodiversity policy, will only become clear with time. It may be that the main use of broad ecosystem service valuations will influence public perceptions rather than, say, feeding into cost-benefit analysis at a project approval level. In Australia, the CSIRO, supported by the Myer Foundation, has commenced a major research project into the valuation of ecosystem services.

Some native species may be considered to have negative economic value, as a result of reduction in productive capacity of the land. An example is the increase in 'woody weeds' in central and western New South Wales and Queensland (e.g. Senna and Eremophila spp.), although in such cases there may be counterbalancing benefits such as protection of wildlife habitat and soil.

The use of native species by Indigenous communities