Human Settlements Theme Report

Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report)
Lead Author: Professor Peter W. Newton, CSIRO Building, Construction and Engineering, Authors
Published by CSIRO on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2001
ISBN 0 643 06747 7

Glossary

adaptation measures (climate change): management measures or options in response to, or anticipation of climate change (as a result of increasing emissions of greenhouse gases); to reduce or avoid adverse consequences or to take advantage of beneficial changes, see mitigation measures
age standardised death rates: summary measures that allow comparison of populations with different age distributions, either different populations at the same time or the same population at different times; they are calculated by applying the observed age-specific death rates for the population of interest to a given reference population, and represent the total death rate that would be observed in the population of interest, if it had the same age distribution as the reference population
agricultural land: any land on which crops or pastures are cultivated or domestic stock are grazed
airshed: a body of air bounded by topographical and/or meteorological features in which a contaminant, once emitted. is contained
allergen: a substance inducing an allergic reaction
ambient air: surrounding outdoor air
aquaculture: the commercial growing of marine (mariculture) or freshwater animals
aquifer: a layer of rock which holds water and allows water to percolate through it
arable land: land that is, or has the potential to be, cultivated for crop production
arbovirus: arthropod-borne virus transmitted to humans through the bite of mosquitoes, includes Barmah Forest virus, Ross River virus, Murray Valley encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis and dengue fever
atmosphere: composite layer of colourless, odourless gases, known as air, surrounding the earth; it shows distinct vertical zonation
Better Cities: a series of demonstration programs in each Australian state and territory with seed funds from the Commonwealth Government, which is designed to show how to make better cities through integrated planning with sustainability and social justice goals
biodiversity: the variety of all life-forms: the different plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form; often considered at three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity
biomass: in this report, organic matter used as an energy source, often as an alternative to burning fossil fuels
brackish water: water that is saline, but less so than sea water; it may be suitable for selective irrigation and watering of livestock
carrying capacity: the maximum population that can be supported indefinitely by a given environment
catchment: the area determined by topographic features within which rainfall will contribute to runoff at a particular point under consideration
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons): synthetic products, which do not occur naturally and contain chlorine and fluorine; commonly used in various industrial processes and a refrigerants and, prior to 1990, as a propellant gas for sprays; deplete ozone in the stratosphere and are powerful greenhouse gases
cleaner production: a worldwide industry trend towards reduced resource inputs and waste outputs in the production process; in Australia, the Commonwealth has set up a program to demonstrate cleaner production processes
climate: the synthesis of day-to-day weather conditions in a given area; the actual climate is characterised by long-term statistics of the state of the atmosphere in an area
climate change: under the terms of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the term means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable periods
consumption landscapes: or consumption spaces, purpose-built or redeveloped areas designed to encourage the consumption of goods and services
dB(A): decibels of noise levels measured using the electronic 'A-weighting' filter incorporated in sound level measuring devices; the frequency response of this filter is similar to that of human hearing; the level of sound in dB(A) is an accurate measure of the loudness of that sound
dispersion: the spread of pollutants caused by atmospheric mixing, transportation or turbulence (random fluctuations in wind velocity)
divertible resources: the volume of water that can be diverted on a sustained basis into conventional water supply systems or to substantial private users, using existing storage and potential dam sites
e-business: business transactions and affairs conducted electronically, without having to be there in person, for example Internet banking, teleconferencing, working from home via Internet
ecolabelling: the labelling of products to reflect environmental concerns such as energy use and recycled materials used
ecological footprint: the ecological impact of cities, including the direct local effects and the indirect regional and global effects due to the resources they use and the wastes they produce
ecological sustainability: the capacity of ecosystems to maintain their essential processes and function and to retain their biological diversity without impoverishment
ecologically sustainable development (ESD): development that improves the total quality of life, both now and in the future, in a way that maintains the ecological processes on which life depends (For the ESD core objectives and guiding principles, see Council of Australian Governments (1992))
ecology: the scientific study of living organisms and their relationships to one another and their environment
ecosystem: a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit
ecosystem services: the role played by organisms in creating a healthy environment for human beings, from production of oxygen to soil formation and maintenance of water quality
ecotax: taxes specifically levied to achieve environmental/natural resource management objectives
ecotourism: nature-based tourism which involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and is managed to be ecologically sustainable
effluent: a discharge or emission of liquid or gas or other waste product
description of a stream network which draws water out of or away from a river or water body
El Nio: a warm water current which periodically flows southwards along the coast of Ecuador and Peru in South America, replacing the usually cold northwards flowing current; occurs once every five to seven years, usually during the Christmas season (the name refers to the Christ child). Occasionally (e.g. 1925, 1972-1973, 1982-1983 and 1990-1994) the occurrence is major and prolonged; the opposite phase of an El Nio is called a La Nia
emissions: substances such as gases or particles discharged into the atmosphere as a result of natural processes of human activities, including those from chimneys, elevated point sources and tailpipes of motor vehicles
endemic: native to a particular area and found nowhere else
enhanced greenhouse effect: the addition to the natural greenhouse effect resulting from human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and land clearing, which increase the atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and CFCs (see greenhouse effect)
ENSO (El Nio-Southern Oscillation): a suite of events that occur at the time of an El Nio; at one extreme of the cycle, when the central Pacific Ocean is warm and the atmospheric pressure over Australia is relatively high, the ENSO causes drought and conditions over eastern Australia (see El Nio, Southern Oscillation)
environmental indicator: physical, chemical, biological or socio-economic measures that can be used to assess natural resources and environmental quality
environmental stress: the damaging influence of human activities on the environment (e.g. through pollution or consumption of natural resources) or that generated by natural events such as storms or droughts
e-transport: use of electronic communications technology to assist delivery of transport services often via intelligent transport systems
evapotranspiration: water withdrawn from soil by evaporation and/or plant transpiration
exajoule: 10¹⁸joules
externalities: costs (or benefits) arising from the decisions of an individual which impact on people other than that individual, for example, the costs of salinity that may arise downstream as a result of the agricultural practices used by a farmer upstream
fossil fuel: any hydrocarbon deposit that can be burned for heat or power, such as coal, oil and natural gas (produces carbon dioxide when burnt)
freshwater: water containing no significant amounts of salts; potable water suitable for all normal uses (see potable water)
fugitive emissions: in the context of the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, these are greenhouse gases emitted from fuel production, processing, transmission, storage and distribution processes, and include emissions from oil and natural gas exploration, venting, flaring, as well as the mining of black coal
gene technology: the tools and techniques that scientists can use to study, identify or modify the genes of living organisms
gentrification: colonisation of an urban area by a higher socio-economic group
geothermal energy: energy derived from the internal heat of the earth
GJ (gigajoule): one thousand million joules
GL (gigalitre): one thousand million litres
globalisation: the economic and social process whereby local markets and cultures are increasingly dominated by global markets and culture
greenhouse effect: a popular term used to describe the role of atmospheric trace gases-water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone-in keeping the earth's surface warmer than it would be otherwise (see enhanced greenhouse effect)
groundwater: water occurring below the ground surface
habitat: the place where an animal or plant normally lives and reproduces
heavy metal: metallic element with relatively high atomic mass (over 5.0 specific gravity), such as lead, cadmium, arsenic and mercury; generally toxic in relatively low concentrations to plant and animal life
hectare (ha): ten thousand square metres
herbarium: a systematically arranged collection of dried plants
heritage: those places, objects and indigenous languages that have aesthetic, historic, scientific or social significance or other special value for future generations as well as for the community today
human capital: the human resources used in the economy
hydrocarbon: an organic molecule containing hydrogen and carbon; the major components of petroleum
index of economic resources, and index of education and occupation: belonging to a family of four indices - the Socio-Economic Indexes [sic] for Areas (SEIFA) - designed to provide a range of new summary measures of social and economic well-being across regions of Australia
indoor air quality: the totality of attributes of indoor air that affect a person's health and well-being
industrial ecology: involves actions taken to reduce the industrial system's impact on the environment; in particular creating a closed industrial system, analogous to a natural ecosystem, where waste from one industry can be used as input for another
infant mortality rates: the number of deaths of infants in the first 12 months of life per 1000 live births
infiltration: the passage of water through a soil surface and into the soil matrix, the passage of air through gaps in buildings to the indoor environment
joule: a unit of energy (see GJ (gigajoule), PJ (petajoule), MJ (megajoule))
kL (kilolitre): one thousand litres, or one cubic metre
L (litre): a unit of volume equal to 1/1000 of one cubic metre
liveability: those qualities if urban life and social amenity that are represented by income (including the social wage), employment, education, housing, accessibility, community and health
mangrove: 1. a plant (belonging to any of a wide range of species, mainly trees and shrubs) that grows in sediment regularly inundated by seawater. 2. a community (forest, woodland, shrubland) of such plants
medium density housing: indicates semi-detached, villa units, single storey and multi-storey apartments
megalopolis: large urban region, often consisting of adjoining towns and suburbs which have merged
mitigation measures (climate change): (with respect to climate change) management measures or options for responding to climate change (as a result of increasing emissions of greenhouse gases) in which the growth of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere is slowed or reversed by limiting emissions of greenhouse gases or enhancement of greenhouse sinks; examples include re-afforestation, fuel switching from high to low carbon dioxide-emitting fuels and increased energy efficiency (see adaptation measures)
MJ (megajoule): one million joules
ML (megalitre): one million litres, or 1000 cubic metres (1 acre foot + 1243 cubic metres)
monitoring: routine counting, testing and measuring of environmental factors or biota to determine their status or condition
multiple use: managing an area to achieve multiple goals or multiple outputs; for example, timber production, water and recreational opportunities
new urbanism: describes the movement begun in the 1980s to design new and redesign existing suburbs based on principles largely derived from the older, successful parts of cities (grid layouts, higher densities, excellent pedestrian access to shops, public transport and recreational space and planning to encourage good public transport services)
ozone: a gas with molecules comprising three atoms of oxygen; in the stratosphere it occurs naturally and provides a protective layer shielding the earth from ultraviolet radiation; in the troposphere, it is usually formed from anthropogenic emissions and is a major component of photochemical smog; ozone is also a greenhouse gas
particles: very small pieces of solid or liquid matter, such as soot, dust, smoke or mist
pastoral areas: those areas used predominantly for grazing livestock with little or no cultivation or improved pastures
pathogen: agent causing disease
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls): a group of chlorinated organic compounds that are non-corroding and resistant to heat and biological degradation; used as insulation in electrical equipment; can accumulate in some species and disrupt reproduction
per capita consumption: the average amount of commodity used per person
photochemical smog: air pollution caused by chemical reactions among various substances and pollutants in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight; ozone is a major constituent
PJ (petajoule): one thousand million joules (10¹⁵ joules)
pollution: the direct or indirect alteration of the physical, thermal, biological or radioactive properties of any part of the environment in such a way as to create a hazard or potential hazard to health, safety or welfare of any living species
potable water: water suitable for drinking
precipitation: any form or all forms of liquid or solid water particles that fall from the atmosphere and reach the earth's surface; includes drizzle, rain, snow, snow pellets, ice crystals, ice pellets and hail
preservation: maintaining the physical material of places or objects in their existing state and retarding deterioration
primary treatment of wastewater: the first step in sewage treatment to remove large solid objects by screens, and sediment and organic matter by settlement (see secondary treatment, tertiary treatment)
production landscapes: the industrial and production areas of our cities
protocol: a formal arrangement defining procedures
recharge: the action by which water is added to a rock layer either naturally or artificially
re-urbanisation: the redevelopment taking place in the existing city and suburbs rather than on the fringe of the city
river regulation: the formation and execution of a specific operating plan for flow modification of water in a river system; may involve the creation of impoundments and diversions, and the control and flow to and from such storages
runoff: that portion of precipitation not immediately absorbed into or detained upon the soil and which thus becomes surface flow
salinity: the concentration of salts in water and/or soil
secondary treatment of wastewater: after primary treatment, removal of biodegradable organic matter from sewage by bacteria and other micro-organisms, activated sludge or trickle filters; also removes about 30% of phosphorous and 50% of nitrate (see primary treatment, tertiary treatment)
sediment: solid material, both mineral and organic, that is in suspension, is being transported, or has been moved from its site of origin by water, air or ice, and has come to rest on the land or sea floor
sinks: processes or places that remove pollutants or greenhouse gases from the atmosphere
Southern Oscillation: a fluctuation in the atmospheric circulation, in particular over the tropical areas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans; in general, when atmospheric pressures are high over the eastern Pacific Ocean they tend to be low in the eastern Indian Ocean and vice versa; the fluctuation between the two produces a marked variation in parameters such as sea-surface temperature and rainfall over a wide area of the Pacific and has a cycle of two to seven years; the phenomenon is strongly linked to the El Nio
space-transforming technologies: new technologies such as high-speed rail, internet economy and green high-rise buildings that are set to alter the way we work, commute and live, and the way our human settlements are organised
species: a group of plants, animals or micro-organisms that have a high degree of similarity and generally can interbreed only amongst themselves to produce fertile offspring, so that they maintain their 'separateness' from other such groups
standardised mortality ratios: an estimate of the number of deaths expected for each human settlement type if that population were to experience the same age-specific death rates as the Australian-born population; the ratio of the number of deaths observed to the number expected is known as the standardised morality ratio (SMR); an SMR greater than 1.0 indicates a level of mortality higher than that in the Australian-born population, while an SMR less than 1.0 indicates a lower level of mortality
State of the Environment Reporting: a process that provides a scientific assessment of environmental conditions, focussing on the impacts of human activities, their significance for the environment and social responses to the identified trends
stock: a quantity of something accumulated that can be counted or measured
stormwater: rainwater which has run off the ground surface, roads, roofs, paved areas etc. and is usually carried away by drains
suburbanisation: the development of new suburbs in undeveloped sites usually on the fringe of the city
surface water: water that remains at or close to the land surface
sustainability science: science which focuses on the dynamic interactions between nature and society. Its objective is a deeper and more fundamental understanding of the rapidly growing inter-dependence of the nature-society system
telematic city: a city where a large degree of decoupling has occurred between physical workplaces and where work is actually performed, this can occur due to high uptake of internet, high bandwidth and mobile communications networks with changes in work cultures. This should result in large changes to the traditional commuter patterns and consequent impacts to urban forms
telemedicine/telehealth: provision of health and medical services over long distance via various technologies to remote communities
tertiary treatment of wastewater: the removal of nitrates, phosphates, chlorinated compounds, salts, acids, metals and toxic organics after secondary treatment of sewage (see primary treatment, secondary treatment)
transit-orientated development: urban development orientated around effective transport
trend: a general direction or tendency; an indication of change (or its absence) in a property or condition
ultraviolet (UV) radiation: electromagnetic radiation of higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths than visible light; ultraviolet radiation is divided into three ranges: UV-A (320-400 nm), UV-B (280-320 nm) and UV-C (40-290 nm)
urban agglomeration: the metropolitan area and its surrounding ex-urban areas of development where more than 20% of households commute to the city for work
urbanisation: the shift of population from rural to urban areas
vector: a disease carrier
VOCs (volatile organic compounds): organic compounds with boiling points between 50C and 260C; in this report VOCs also include formaldehyde and pesticides
wastewater: water which has been used for some purpose and normally be treated or discarded; wastewater usually contains significant quantities of pollutant
water resources: water in various forms, such as groundwater, surface water, snow and ice, at present in the land phase of the hydrological cycle - some parts may be renewable seasonally, but others may be effectively mined
weather: the day-to-day changing of atmospheric conditions, which in synthesis constitute the climate of a region
weed: a plant species growing where it is not wanted by humans
wetland: the land area alongside fresh and salt waters that is flooded all or part of the time; marine and estuarine wetlands include tidal basins, salt marshes and mangroves