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5 Land

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4.4 Human capital

Section 4.3 focused on the systems that inform management about the land environment. Management effectiveness also depends heavily on the quality and overall capacity of the human resources, networks and infrastructure involved in land planning and management. In large measure, improvements in land use during recent decades have been due to:

• increased land literacy in the community (e.g. through the Landcare movement and other community-based programs)
• improved levels of environmental education, due to a greater focus on the environment in school curricula, and professional learning and development programs
• a better understanding of the intrinsic suitability of particular areas of land for different uses (e.g. based on land resource and ecological surveys)
• effective adoption of outcomes from research and development (e.g. better crop varieties and fertilisers, conservation cropping strategies)
• more formalised management practices that result in better planning and timing of operations (e.g. grazing systems, farm planning, forest codes of practice)
• better access to information on sustainable systems of land management (e.g. through industry groups, Landcare networks and the Internet).

Although the improvements in land use are to be applauded, it is clear from this report that, in many regions, the decline in land condition has not been completely arrested. The significance of this problem is sharpened when we consider the scale of the global land and water challenge (see Section 1.3). Another worrying trend is an apparent weakening of relevant human capital—knowledge, education and experience—in Australia. There are several dimensions to this problem, with interlinked causes and impacts:

• Loss of connection to the land—Australia is becoming increasingly urbanised, and many Australians now have minimal direct contact with people in rural and remote regions. This affects both the awareness and sophistication of public discourse on land-related issues (e.g. debates on the management of feral animals, fire policy and genetically modified organisms).
• Higher education—Numbers of students taking higher degrees in agricultural science and forestry have diminished significantly over the past decade.^119-120 The same trend applies to NRM-related degrees more generally and relevant vocational education and training programs. As a result, there is now a growing professional and technical capacity gap in land and NRM. The reasons for this are complex, but reflect in part a decline in the status of these fields, perceptions that primary industries are in decline, and an apparent lack of career paths for graduates.
• Career paths for land managers—Many of the traditional career paths for land managers no longer exist, as a consequence of agency downsizing and shifts to shorter term, project-based funding. Despite large investments in programs such as the Natural Heritage Trust and Caring for our Country, there has been limited consideration of workforce planning and career development for the thousands of people employed through these programs.¹²¹
• Scientific and technical capability—This is closely related to the career-path problem and the issue of investment in research and development discussed above. Many committed and capable scientists and technicians have been trained in land-related disciplines in the past 20 years. For example, the survey programs during the Decade of Landcare (an Australian Government initiative aimed at addressing land degradation, conducted in 1990-2000) resulted in a cohort of experts in vegetation science, rangeland ecology, soils, salinity, regolith and applied ecology. However, the shift to project-based funding resulted in many of these young and mid career professionals leaving their chosen field. Rebuilding this capability requires career pathways that offer opportunities for around five years’ field experience in a range of landscapes subsequent to degree completion.
• Indigenous capacity—As Indigenous Australians assume formal responsibility for managing or co-managing more of Australia’s land environment, and as their interests in, and potential contributions to, land management are recognised more widely, there is a corresponding need to build their capacity in both traditional and scientific management. There is also a need to build the capacity of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians to work effectively together in managing the land environment.^6,122-123
• Scientific and professional inputs into policy and planning—The weakening of human capital has a direct impact on the level of scientific and professional advice provided to governments. The likelihood of informed policy and planning outcomes is reduced accordingly.

Assessment summary 5.8—Effectiveness of land management

Summary	Assessment grade				Confidence
	Ineffective	Partially effective	Effective	Very effective	in grade	in trend
Climate-induced pressures
Understanding: The general nature and pattern of climate-induced pressures are becoming clearer, although many uncertainties remain at finer scales
Planning: Most planning remains at an early stage, in part reflecting the rapidly evolving understanding of how climate-induced pressures are likely to impact on the land environment
Inputs: There have been substantial initial investments in national and state-scale research on likely impacts and possible management responses
Processes: National and state-level bodies and industry sectors are now engaging with the issues of climate change. However, there is not yet consensus at the highest political levels about strategies to address and mitigate climate change
Outputs and outcomes: Outputs focus on the knowledge and information base necessary to inform management responses to the likely impacts of climate change
Bushfire
Understanding: There is a generally high level of understanding of the impacts of bushfires on environmental values, strategies for mitigating adverse impacts, and the responsibilities of land managers;
Planning: There is generally a high level of planning for bushfire risk mitigation
Inputs: The overall level of inputs for bushfire risk mitigation and management has increased, particularly for public land in southern Australia. In general, there are insufficient inputs to minimise the impacts of bushfire on environmental values of the extensively managed rangelands and tropical savannas of all tenures
Processes: There are well-developed processes for evaluating the impacts of bushfire management strategies on environmental values, and for adaptive management
Outputs and outcomes: In general, the greater recognition and understanding of bushfire impacts on environmental values means that these are less impacted by planned fire. The impacts of wildfire are more difficult to manage, and more variable
Land clearing
Understanding: The impacts of land clearing on environmental values are well understood
Planning: All states and territories, other than the Northern Territory, where legislation is now being enacted, have legislation to control land clearing
Inputs: Timely monitoring and reporting systems and tools are key inputs; the availability and quality of these have improved nationally and within jurisdictions
Processes: Processes vary between jurisdictions, but all are more effective than they have been in the past
Outputs and outcomes: The national rate of land clearing is now balanced by that of regrowth, but land clearing continues to threaten environmental values in some regions
Invasive species
Understanding: There are well-established, coordinated national arrangements for identification of, minimisation of and response to biosecurity risks, and national and state strategies for managing priority pest animal and invasive plant species
Planning: There are high levels of national, state and regional-level planning for priority invasive species
Inputs: Australian Government inputs are focused on national priority species or on listed threatening processes. In addition, state and territory governments and regional natural resource management organisations commit resources to local priorities; these are complemented by considerable voluntary community and landowner commitments of time and resources. However, in general, financial resources available to manage established invasive species are less than those that would be necessary to substantially impact on pest populations. In some cases, this is because control measures that are effective and feasible have not been identified
Processes: Management processes vary widely, depending on the nature of the invasive species or threat. There is generally an emphasis on integrated management responses, drawing on a range of control measures. Processes are public, and stakeholders are appropriately engaged
Outputs and outcomes: Containment, rather than elimination, is the feasible goal of most invasive species management strategies. The success of strategies for individual invasive species varies, both spatially and temporally, but overall, invasive species are expected to become more, rather than less, threatening for land environmental values
Management of conservation reserves
Understanding: The objectives of the national reserve system, and for management of conservation reserves, are explicitly specified in national and state-level policy statements and in management plans for reserves
Planning: Management plans are the basis of planning for individual reserves. Planning to adapt to the impacts of climate change, and to improve the resilience and effectiveness of the national reserve system, is under way
Inputs: Resource inputs across the conservation system as a whole are insufficient for the realisation of management objectives
Processes: Processes governing management of conservation reserves are generally clear and transparent, draw on stakeholder input, and report to stakeholders
Outputs and outcomes: Management outcomes are usually realised in the short term, but the longer term outcomes sought of conservation reserves depend also on the impacts of processes, such as those described in this table, that threaten maintenance of their values
Indigenous-managed lands
Understanding: Indigenous Australians have formal management rights to increasing areas of their country under a number of tenure regimes
Planning: Planning processes are best developed for Indigenous Protected Areas, and for areas for which Indigenous ranger groups are active
Inputs: Financial inputs derive predominantly from government programs, and are threatened by planned changes to workforce programs. Significant resources have been committed from the private and philanthropic sectors for some projects
Processes: Processes respect Indigenous culture and interests as well as the interests of funding entities
Outputs and outcomes: The outputs of Indigenous land management include cultural, social and economic elements, as well as land management itself. The outcomes of greater Indigenous land management include a more effective conservation reserve system, and more sustainable land management
Production forests
Understanding: Management of both public and private native forests harvested for wood production is regulated by codes of forest practice in all states and territories. Plantation forestry practices are regulated similarly in some states, but less prescriptively in others. Many large-scale forest owners in both public and private sectors have sought and received third-party forest certification
Planning: Intensive planning of forest operations is required for native forests in all states and territories, and for plantation forests in most jurisdictions
Inputs: High levels of inputs, funded on a commercial basis, are associated with production forestry
Processes: Processes for public native forest management have high levels of stakeholder engagement; those for private native forests and plantation forest are generally more limited
Outputs and outcomes: Outputs are typically assessed against planning and commercial objectives. Outcomes are intended to ensure that forestry operations comply with the principles of sustainable forest management and forest certification systems
Grazing lands
Understanding: There is a good understanding of climate variability, trade-related matters and greenhouse gas abatement, and these directly affect grazing practices. Animal welfare issues are prominent
Planning: The standard of property planning continues to improve, especially in larger integrated grazing operations
Inputs: Monitoring of grazing systems has improved. Insufficient resources are available to protect ecosystem services, due to the absence of a funding mechanism for these public goods. Survey and monitoring programs are poorly resourced
Processes: These have advanced significantly through Landcare and related activities
Outputs and outcomes: Good progress, but chronic forms of land degradation are widespread in the grazing lands of Australia
Dryland cropping
Understanding: There is a good understanding of climate variability, trade-related matters and the potential impacts of climate change
Planning: Sophistication continues to increase, and leading farmers use sophisticated modelling and forecasting tools to plan operations
Inputs: Weakening human capital and patchy information systems constrain economic efficiency and environmental management
Processes: Weakening investment in research and development and ongoing changes to extension services are significant matters
Outputs and outcomes: By international standards, dryland cropping in most regions is very efficient, although environmental performance is often difficult to assess
Irrigation and intensive agriculture
Understanding: The industry is in the middle of a major water reform process, which is leading to improved efficiency but inevitable disruptions. These changes are strongly contested, although a much clearer view is emerging about future development pathways (e.g. northern Australia, Murray-Darling Basin)
Planning: This has improved significantly at the farm and district scale, but regional and national planning has not been able to resolve competing contemporary and future needs for agriculture and the environment
Inputs: Weakening human capital and patchy information systems constrain current performance and capacity to adapt
Processes: Generally good at the local and district scale, but processes for dealing with reduced water allocations are only partly effective
Outputs and outcomes: Irrigated agriculture has improved its environmental performance (e.g. salinity management, reduced pesticide use, improved nutrient management), and the economic return per unit of water has increased
Mining
Understanding: Unprecedented industry expansion is a profound development for Australia. Most of the industry has a much greater sensitivity to the need for environmental management and a social licence to operate. The local impacts of mining on the land environment are nearly always major, and conflict with stakeholders is inevitable. The scale of expansion is now a major issue because of emerging regional impacts (e.g. Hunter and La Trobe valleys, northern New South Wales, central Queensland)
Planning: Existing mechanisms are being tested, particularly when mining and agriculture interests are at odds
Inputs: Insufficient environmental information is hampering decision-making and policy (e.g. mapping of prime agriculture land, assessing groundwater dynamics and contamination risks)
Processes: Management of mine sites has generally improved, as has mine-site rehabilitation. Processes for some types of mines and mining continue to be contested
Outputs and outcomes: Significantly improved, but the scale of expansion and related environmental impacts are now the key issues
Urban and rural residential use
Understanding: Impacts on the land environment are acknowledged
Planning: The incremental nature of expansion rarely translates into an event or conflict that results in major change to planning systems. Strategic planning is only partially successful. The planning profession has lost ground in recent decades, and the need for innovation in planning is now stronger than ever
Inputs: Large private-sector investment, with modest public-sector investment
Processes: Many innovations to improve urban environments are occurring (e.g. through landscape architecture, community initiatives, urban agriculture), and urban development has less of an impact (e.g. erosion and sediment control, water-sensitive design)
Outputs and outcomes: Urban sprawl continues. The demand for land on the eastern seaboard will result in the loss of prime agricultural land and continuing environmental impact, unless major changes are made in urban design and planning
Waste disposal
Understanding: Global, national and local imperatives to reduce waste and recycle are now widely supported
Planning: Still evolving, but future constraints are significant and improvements are needed. For example, rehabilitation of existing contaminated sites and shortage of landfill sites are major challenges
Inputs: Industries and public agencies have invested in waste disposal and recycling technologies
Processes: Surveillance of existing and potentially new contaminated sites is inadequate given the potential economic costs, environmental impacts and consequences for human health
Outputs and outcomes: Much improved

Recent trends	Improving	Stable	Confidence	Adequate high-quality evidence and high level of consensus
	Deteriorating	Unclear		Limited evidence or limited consensus
				Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment
Grades	Very effective
	Effective
	Partially effective
	Ineffective

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